•2..S.  /ifc  I, 


tVic  Ihtologijai  ^ 

X. 

PRINCETON,  N.  J. 


Purchased  by  the  Hamill  Missionary  Fund. 


S R I R 

Division  rrSrrff  . Sfrr.  • •w' 

.L61 


Section 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
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THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


The 

Awakening  of  the  East 

SIBERIA— JAPAN— CHINA 


PIERRE  LEROY-BEAULIEU 


With  a preface  by 


HENRY  NORMAN 


Author  of 

“ People  and  Politics  of  the  Far  East,” 
“The  Real  Japan,”  etc. 


NEW  YORK 

McCLURE,  PHILLIPS  & CO. 

M C M 


Copyright,  1900, 

By  McClure,  Phillips  & Co. 


First  Impression,  November,  1900 
Second  Impression,  January,  1901 


PREFACE* 


M.  Leroy-Beaulieu’s  work  appears  in  English  at  a singularly 
appropriate  moment,  and  I believe  that  those  who  know 
most  about  the  Far  East  will  be  the  warmest  in  its  praise. 
Its  personal  observations  are  acute,  its  statistics  have  been 
conscientiously  gathered  and  carefully  collated,  they  are 
scrupulously  restricted  to  the  particular  matters  they  are 
intended  to  illuminate,  while  most  valuable  of  all  is  the 
author’s  political  sagacity,  and  the  detachment,  so  to  speak, 
of  his  attitude  as  an  observer  and  investigator.  If  one  may 
say  so  without  offence,  this  is  rare  in  a writer  of  M.  Leroy- 
Eeaulieu’s  nationality.  A Frenchman  is  usually  so  good  a 
Frenchman  that  he  cannot  divest  himself,  even  for  an  hour,  of 
the  preferences  and  prejudices  of  his  own  land  and  race. 
When,  however,  you  do  find  a Frenchman  who  by  tempera- 
ment, research,  and  travel  has  attained  to  a cosmopolitan 
impartiality,  then  nobody  dwells  in  so  cool  and  clear  an 
atmosphere  as  he.  The  present  volume,  I venture  to  say,  is 


* Mr.  Richard  Davey  is  responsible  for  the  translation  of  this  work,  but  I 
have  added  a footnote  here  and  there  (signed  by  my  initials),  and  I have 
revised  the  spelling  of  the  proper  names  to  bring  them  into  accordanee 
with  English  usage.  To  forestall  the  charge  of  inconsistency,  I may  say 
that  I have  acted  on  the  principle  generally  adopted  in  the  spelling  of  Eu- 
ropean proper  names,  that  is,  1 have  retained  improper  spellings  consecrated 
by  long  custom  — for  instance,  Chefoo,  Suchow,  Hankow,  Kowloon,  just  as  we 
write  Florence,  Munieh,  Naples,  Moscow.  But  names  not  yet  regularly 
Europeanized  I have  spelled  according  to  a consistent  and  more  reasonable 
system  of  transliteration— as  Kiao-chau,  Pe-chi-li,  Kwei-chau.  The  French 
spelling  of  Chinese  proper  names  looks  very  strange  to  an  English  eye,  and 
would  convey  a wholly  false  impression  to  an  English  ear. 


V 


PREFACE 


an  example  of  this,  for  if  there  were  no  name  on  the  title-page, 
and  the  word  ‘ we  ’ were  not  used  of  the  French  people,  it 
would  be  impossible  to  discover  the  writer’s  nationality  from 
his  work.  Hypercriticism  might  perhaps  remark  that  M.  Leroy- 
Beaulieu  is  just  a little  too  ready  to  welcome  as  fact  malicious 
little  anecdotes  directed  against  ourselves,  such  as  the  ingenious 
fiction  that  the  British  admiral  saluted  the  Japanese  admiral’s 
flag  outside  Wei-hai-wei  before  sunrise  in  order  that  the  guns 
should  awaken  the  sleeping  Chinese  seamen  to  a sense  of  their 
peril,  not  to  mention  his  ready  acceptance  as  typical  of  the 
‘ insatiable  British  public  ’ of  the  amusing  boast  of  some  un- 
named English  newspaper  that  we  might,  if  it  pleased  us,  build 
a railway  from  the  mouth  of  the  Nile  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Yang-tsze.  But.  on  the  whole,  he  probably  approaches  as  near 
to  the  ‘ impartial  spectator  ’ of  an  old-fashioned  philosophical 
hypothesis  as  it  is  given  to  anybody  in  this  prejudiced  world  to 
do;  and  assuredly  the  brilliant  ability  with  which  he  has 
analyzed  and  summarized  national  and  international  situations 
of  the  greatest  delicacy  and  complexity  speaks  for  itself. 

Beyond  question  the  future  of  the  Far  East  is  the  gravest 
matter  before  the  civilized  world  to-day.  For  many  generations 
the  Eastern  Question  caused  Sovereigns  to  turn  restlessly  in 
their  beds  and  diplomatists  to  start  at  a footfall ; but,  as  Lord 
Rosebery  was  quick  to  point  out,  there  arose  not  long  ago  a 
Far  Eastern  Question  much  more  embarrassing,  much  more 
complicated,  much  more  pregnant  with  disaster.  It  presents 
itself  at  this  moment  under  three  chief  aspects : the  approach- 
ing completion  of  a Russian  continuous  line  of  railway  from 
Europe  to  the  China  Sea,  the  frontier  of  Korea,  and  the  gates 
of  Peking;  the  startling  entry  of  Japan  into  the  comity  of 
peoples  as  a great  naval,  military,  and  civilizing  power;  and 
the  course  of  events  which  has  led  to  the  occupation  of  the 
Chinese  capital  by  the  allied  forces  of  eight  nations.  It  is 
precisely  with  these  three  topics  that  M.  Leroy-Beaulieu  deals, 
and  there  will  be  no  need  to  recommend  them  to  the  earnest 


VI 


PREFACE 


attention  of  British  readers  if  the  latter  realize — as  they  should 
— that  behind  the  third  there  looms  without  doubt  the  appalling 
spectre  of  a European  War. 

The  Trans-Siberian  Railway  has  been  greatly  hindered  by 
the  Chinese  rising  in  Manchuria.  For  practical  purposes  it 
can  hardly  be  said  to  exist  beyond  Irkutsk,  for  although  the 
line  is  completed  as  far  as  Stretensk,  there  is  yet  a lack  of 
rolling-stock,  and  the  dreary  voyage  by  steamers  of  different 
draughts  down  the  Shilka  and  Amur  rivers  to  Khabarofsk, 
where  the  line  to  Vladivostok  is  met,  deprives  the  railway 
route  as  yet  of  all  its  advantages  over  the  sea-route  from  Europe. 
The  last  passengers  who  came  from  Vladivostok  to  Moscow 
before  the  interruption  of  traffic  spent  thirty-eight  days  on  the 
journey,  and  it  will  have  been  noticed  that  by  far  the  larger 
part  of  the  reinforcing  Russian  troops,  horses,  and  materiel 
were  despatched  to  the  Far  East  from  Odessa,  no  small  portion 
in  British  transports.  The  Manchurian  section  of  the  great 
railway  has  from  the  first,  even  in  times  of  peace,  presented 
great  difficulties  of  climate,  lack  of  supplies,  and  hostility  of 
the  native  population,  but  now  a considerable  part  of  the  work 
executed  has  been  destroyed,  the  Russian  forces  have  not  yet 
succeeded  in  clearing  the  country  of  the  Chinese  troops  and 
irregulars,  a large  garrison  will  have  to  be  maintained  to 
protect  the  works  in  hand,  and  a long  delay  over  the  original 
estimated  dates  of  completion  is  inevitable.  All  this,  however, 
is  nothing  but  a question  of  date.  In  national  strategic  enter- 
prises of  this  kind  Russia  works  with  speed  and  tenacity. 
What  has  been  destroyed  will  be  built  more  solidly  than 
before;  it  is  even  probable  that  recent  events,  as  they  will 
undoubtedly  give  Russia  a freer  hand,  will  enable  her  to 
secure  a shorter,  and  therefore  more  effective,  route  from  her 
Siberian  line  to  China.  It  .will  not,  in  any  case,  be  many 
years  before  Port  Arthur  and  Peking  will  be  within  a fortnight’s 
railway  journey  of  Moscow.  Before  then  that  railway  will  have 
developed  agricultural  and  mineral  wealth  along  its  route  to  a 

vii 


PREFACE 


degree  undreamed  of  by  those  who  have  not  studied  its  prospects 
on  the  spot,  and  it  will  be  defended  and  served  by  every  kind 
of  protective  and  paternal  legislation.  Moreover,  when  need 
arises,  every  mile  of  the  line,  every  station  and  warehouse  and 
water-tank,  every  station-master,  every  engineer,  every  con- 
ductor, every  patrolling  convict,  every  locomotive,  every 
carriage  and  every  waggon,  will  be  placed  by  a stroke  of  the 
pen  at  the  absolute  disposal  of  the  Minister  of  War,  while 
every  railway  in  European  Russia  will  be  called  upon  to  supply 
whatever  may  be  lacking.  Russia  has  one  great  advantage 
over  other  countries  in  times  of  crisis — private  interests  cease 
to  exist.  It  must  not  be  forgotten,  also,  that  the  Trans- 
Siberian  Railway  is  only  one  of  Russia’s  great  strategic  lines 
towards  the  East.  Before  it  is  finished,  her  Trans-Caspian 
Railway,  which  is  already  not  only  a military,  but  positively  a 
commercial  success,  will  be  joined  to  it,  and  will  have  brought 
the  frontiers  of  Persia  and  Afghanistan,  and  another  frontier  of 
China,  within  a week  of  the  military  centre  of  European 
Russia.  Whether  from  the  point  of  view  of  inter-communica- 
tion, of  commerce,  or  of  diplomacy  and  arms,  no  single 
development  so  significant  and  so  far-reaching  in  its  con- 
sequences has  occurred  in  the  modern  world. 

The  second  aspect  of  the  Far  Eastern  Question  is  at  last 
happily  appreciated  by  all.  The  ‘ child  of  the  world’s  old  age,’ 
Japan,  has  grown  to  manhood.  It  is  exactly  eighteen  years — 
the  age  at  which  Sovereigns  attain  their  majority — since  Count 
Inouye  first  proposed  to  the  sixteen  treaty  Powers — including 
Peru  and  Hawaii  ! — that  Japan,  in  return  for  certain  concessions 
to  foreigners,  should  be  endowed  with  a measure  of  judicial 
autonomy.  Great  Britain,  to  her  honour  be  it  ever  remembered, 
led  the  way  in  this,  and  Japan  is  now  a nation  as  independent 
as  ourselves — the  fiVst  Oriental  people  to  be  placed  absolutely 
on  a par  with  the  conquering  and  jealous  West.  In  no  respect 
has  she  shown  herself  unworthy  of  the  faith  placed  in  her.  In 
art  alone  has  she  retrograded,  but  that  will  not  be  held  a 

viii 


PREFACE 


special  reproach  to  her  by  those  among  us  who  look  back  six 
centuries  for  their  artistic  inspiration.  In  finance,  in  law,  in 
science,  in  education,  in  manufacture,  she  has  already  attained 
a higher  level  than  many  so-called  civilized  nations,  and  she  is 
progressing  fast.  In  directions  unfortunately  still  more  calcu- 
lated to  compel  the  respect  of  other  peoples — a very  powerful 
army  and  navy,  perfectly  equipped,  admirably  disciplined,  and 
instinct  with  the  magnificent  courage  of  the  old  feudal  warriors — 
her  advance  has  taken  the  unthinking  world  by  surprise.  But  for 
her  prompt  and  unselfish  action  in  China,  and  the  large  force 
which  her  first-rate  military  system  enabled  her  to  despatch 
without  delay,  Europe  and  America  would  to-day  be  mourn- 
ing the  most  horrible  massacre  of  modern  history.  At  this 
moment  Japan  and  Great  Britain  are  the  only  nations  striving, 
and,  if  necessary,  probably  ready  to  fight,  to  keep  China  inde- 
pendent and  undivided,  open  to  the  trade  of  all  the  world 
on  equal  terms,  without  selfish  reservations  on  the  one  hand, 
and  without  trembling  before  party  recriminations  on  the 
other. 

The  Far  Eastern  Question,  however,  holds  the  stage  at  this 
moment  by  its  third  aspect.  China,  the  eternally  unoriginal, 
has  repeated  herself  once  more,  as  every  student  of  the  Far 
East  has  foreseen  she  would.  This  time  the  repetition  is  extraor- 
dinarly  exact,  as  a revewer  of  the  new  edition  of  Lord  Loch’s 
‘Personal  Narrative’  of  i860  has  just  pointed  out.  ‘It  is  im- 
possible,’ he  says,  ‘ to  read  it  without  being  struck  by  the  re- 
semblance, down  even  to  details,  between  the  situation  in 
China  and  that  of  exactly  forty  years  ago.  Then,  as  now,  a war 
party  led  by  an  Imperial  Prince  was  in  the  ascendant;  a war 
was  forced  on  European  Powers  by  a gross  breach  of  a solemn 
treaty,  two  Ambassadors  on  their  way  to  Peking  being  fired  on 
and  obliged  to  return ; the  armies  of  those  Powers  had  to  march 
on  the  Chinese  capital;  the  Chinese  authorities  in  the  prov- 
inces were  frantic  in  their  eagerness  to  negotiate  so  as  to  stop 
the  advance  of  the  allied  army  on  the  capital.  Li,  then  only  a 


IX 


PREFACE 


provincial  Governor,  had  his  little  proposals  for  settling  every- 
thing to  his  own  satisfaction.  The  Emperor  had  fled  from  the 
capital,  and  the  lady  who  is  now  Empress-Dowager  had  fled 
with  him,  and  in  many  other  respects  history  is  just  now 
repeating  itself  with  curious  fidelity.’  * But  forty  years  ago 
there  was  no  occupation  by  eight  nations,  and  no  five  great 
Powers  endeavouring  to  checkmate  one  another’s  plans. 
Indeed,  there  was  then  no  Far  Eastern  Question  at  all.  But 
though  we  have  changed,  China  remains  the  same.  Her 
rooted  hatred  of  foreigners,  her  treachery,  her  lies,  her  sicken- 
ing cruelty,  her  utter  inability  to  reform  herself,  to  eradicate 
corruption,  to  form  an  army  or  a navy — to  be,  in  a word,  a 
nation — remain  precisely  as  they  have  always  been.  Writers 
with  no  first-hand  knowledge  of  China  have  not  unnaturally 
fallen  into  the  error  of  thinking  that  because  small-bore  rifles 
and  Krupp  guns  have  been  found  in  the  hands  of  the  Chinese 
troops,  who  have  used  them  with  effect  in  beating  back  for  a 
time  foreign  forces,  therefore  China  has  at  last  laid  to  heart 
the  lessons  of  her  defeat  by  Japan,  and  has  become  a military 
Power  to  be  reckoned.f  It  is  a complete  misapprehension. 
The  Boxers  fought  recklessly,  like  the  Mahdists,  from  a 
belief  in  their  own  magical  invulnerability ; but  the  regular 
troops  hardly  even  attempted  to  withstand  a foreign  attack  in 
anything  like  equal  numbers,  except  from  behind  strong  walls, 
and  not  always  then.  Describing  the  capture  without  a shot 
or  a blow  of  several  forts  and  magnificent  guns,  that  had  never 
been  fired  since  they  were  bought,  an  eye-witness  says:  ‘ Only 

the  most  complete  demoralization,  utter  rout,  and  headlong 


* The  Titnes,  September  13th,  1900. 

t For  example,  the  writer  signing  himself  ‘ Diploma ticus’  in  the  Fort, 
nightly  Review  for  September,  1900,  airily  dismisses  as  ‘ illusions  ’ the  belief 
that  ‘ China  was  gradually  crumbling  to  ruin,  that  she  was  incapable  of  organ- 
ized resistance  to  the  foreigner,  that  her  millions  were  unconscious  of  a 
national  spirit  and  incapable  of  progress.’  Each  one  of  these  ‘ illusions  ’ is  an 
elementary  fact  about  China,  except  so  far  as  foreign  help  and  guidance  may 
alter  it. 


X 


PREFACE 


flight  of  the  Chinese  could  explain  the  abandonment  of  such 
valuable  guns,  gear,  and  equipment.’  * 

I dwell  upon  this  point  because  there  is  great  danger  of  it 
being  overlooked  at  the  present  crisis — by  some  from  ignorance, 
by  others  from  design.  As  the  missionary  said  to  M.  Leroy- 
Beaulieu,  ‘ Those  who  most  despair  of  China  are  those  who 
know  her  best  ’ ; and  the  author’s  own  conclusion  that  ‘ any 
reform  from  the  inside  is  out  of  the  question,  no  matter  from 
how  high  the  initiative  starts,’  is  the  conviction  of  all  students 
of  China,  except  those  who  have  never  been  within  ten  thousand 
miles  of  her  coast.  This  very  weakness,  coupled  with  her 
malleability,  even  to  the  profession  of  arms — witness  the  gallant 
conduct  of  the  Chinese  Regiment  from  Wei-hai-wei  under  its 
British  officers — is  the  kernel  of  the  danger  of  the  present 
situation,  for  the  nation  that  should  be  free  to  organize  China 
would  be  a menace  to  the  rest  of  the  world.  Those  who  aim 
at  conquest  are  therefore  playing  for  a high  stake,  and  their 
inspiration  is  more  cogent  than  that  which  urges  others  to  the 
defence  of  mere  trading  opportunities.  The  course  of  the 
coming  century  depends  upon  the  result  of  this  trial  of  states- 
manship. Woe  betide  England  if  her  leaders  fail  her  now  I 

HENRY  NORMAN. 

• The  special  correspondent,  September  nth,  1900. 


XI 


i 


CONTENTS 


INTHODUCTION 


PART  I.— SIBERIA 

CHAPTER 

I.  THE  ORIGINS  OF  RUSSIAN  EXPANSION  IN  SIBERIA  AND  THE 
NATURAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  COUNTRY  . 

II.  THE  LAND  OF  SIBERIA  AND  ITS  INHABITANTS 

III.  AGRICULTURAL  SIBERIA  AND  THE  RURAL  POPULATION 

IV.  MINERAL  RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 

V.  SIBERIAN  COMMERCE  AND  THE  TRANSPORT  OF  TEA 

VI.  SIBERIAN  TOWNS  ...... 

VII.  IMMIGRATION  ....... 

VIII.  MEANS  OF  COMMUNICATION  IN  SIBERIA  . . 

IX.  THE  TRANS-SIBERIAN  RAILWAY  .... 

X.  THE  RAILWAY  THROUGH  MANCHURIA 

XI.  THE  ALTERED  RELATIONS  BETWEEN  EUROPE  AND  THE  FAR 
EAST  RESULTING  FROM  THE  TRANS-SIBERIAN  RAILWAY  . 

PART  II.— JAPAN 

I.  THE  ORIGIN  AND  PAST  HISTORY  OF  JAPAN  . . . 

II.  JAPAN  AND  THE  REVOLUTION  OP  l868  . . . 

III.  MODERN  JAPAN  ...... 

IV.  JAPANESE  INDUSTRY  ...... 

V.  RURAL  JAPAN  ....... 

VI.  DEVELOPMENT  OF  JAPANESE  COMMERCE  . . 

VII.  THE  FINANCES  OF  JAPAN  ..... 

VIII.  THE  DOMESTIC  POLITICS  AND  PARLIAMENT  OF  JAPAN 

IX.  japan’s  foreign  POLICY  AND  HER  MILITARY  POWER 

X.  THE  FUTURE  OF  WESTERN  CIVILIZATION  IN  JAPAN — RELA- 
TIONS BETWEEN  JAPANESE  AND  FOREIGNERS 

xiii 


PACK 

XV 


I 

9 

17 

27 

3« 

38 

43 

56 

64 

7« 

76 


81 

97 

IIO 

118 

125 

135 

143 

154 

164 

171 


CONTENTS 


PART  III.— CHINA 

CRAPTEX  PAGB 

I.  THE  CHINESE  PROBLEM  . . . . . 183 

II.  THE  CAPITAL  OF  CHINA  .....  188 

III.  THE  COUNTRY  IN  THE  NEIGHBOURHOOD  OF  PEKING  — 

NUMEROUS  SIGNS  OF  THE  DECLINE  OF  THE  EMPIRE  . I98 

IV.  THE  LITERARY  AND  MANDARIN  CLASS — PRINCIPAL  CAUSES 

OF  THE  DECADENCE  OF  THE  EMPIRE  . . . 2O4 

V.  THE  CHINESE  PEOPLE  AND  THEIR  CHARACTERISTICS  212 

VI.  FOREIGNERS  IN  CHINA  — THE  ATTITUDE  OF  THE  CHINESE 

TOWARDS  WESTERN  CIVILIZATION  ....  228 

VII.  THE  POSITION  AND  WORK  OF  FOREIGNERS  IN  CHINA  . 234 

VIII.  CHINA  AND  THE  POWERS  .....  242 

IX.  RUSSIA,  FRANCE,  AND  ENGLAND  IN  THE  FAR  EAST  IN  1895-97  253 

X.  CHINA  AND  THE  POWERS  1897-99 — ‘SPHERES  OF  INFLU- 
ENCE,’ AND  THE  ‘OPEN  DOOR*  ....  266 

XI.  THE  FUTURE  OF  CHINA  — MAINTENANCE  OR  PARTITION  OF 

THE  CELESTIAL  EMPIRE?  .....  276 


INTRODUCTION* 


This  book  is  the  result  of  personal  observations  made  in  the 
course  of  a journey  through  Siberia,  China,  and  Japan,  last- 
ing over  a year,  and  is  supplemented  by  information  derived 
chiefly  from  official  and  carefully  collated  documents.  Asia, 
the  largest  of  the  five  Continents,  is  still  the  most  densely  popu- 
lated ; but  after  being  the  cradle  of  civilization,  it  has  been  for 
many  centuries  dead  to  all  progress.  It  is  in  the  awakening  of 
this  vast  Continent  through  the  influx  of  men  and  ideas  from 
the  West,  by  the  application  of  modern  science  to  the  exploita- 
tion of  its  wealth,  that  consists  the  phenomenon  which  we 
are  witnessing  at  the  present  time,  and  to  the  examination  of 
which  the  author  devotes  the  following  pages. 

The  effect  of  European  action  in  Asia  does  not,  it  is  true, 
date  from  our  time  ; it  began  as  soon  as  the  Asiatic  invasion 
of  Europe  had  ceased.  In  the  sixteenth  century,  whilst  the 
Russians  were  settling  in  Siberia,  we  find  the  Portuguese  land- 
ing on  the  coasts  of  India,  China,  and  Japan.  For  a long  time, 
however,  the  influence  of  the  West  was  merely  superficial. 
By  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  it  had  scarcely  reached 
India  and  a few  points  on  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor  ; all  the  rest 
of  Asia  remained  obdurate.  Siberia  was  almost  a desert,  un- 
explored, without  any  communication  with  the  outer  world ; 
China  a stranger  to  all  progress  ; and  Japan  hermetically  sealed. 
Thus,  all  the  temperate  zones  of  Asia,  those  best  suited  to  the 
white  race,  as  well  as  those  inhabited  by  the  most  numerous, 

♦Written  especially  for  the  American  edition  by  the  author. 


XV 


INTRODUCTION 


industrious,  and  vigorous  populations,  regarded  from  whatever 
point  of  view,  were  fifty  years  ago  completely  outside  of 
European  influence.  At  this  moment  two  facts  of  vital  im- 
portance have  become  prominent,  which  have  been  passed 
over  almost  unnoticed  by  European  nations,  greatly  preoc- 
cupied by  other  questions.  In  1854,  Japan  began  to  open 
her  ports  to  foreigners ; and  Russia,  descending  almost  simul- 
taneously from  the  glacial  solitudes  of  the  Okhotsk  Sea, 
seized,  at  the  expense  of  China,  the  banks  of  the  Amur,  thus 
coming  into  actual  contact  with  the  Celestial  Empire,  which 
hitherto  she  had  only  reached  through  deserts,  advanced 
her  frontier  up  to  the  boundaries  of  Korea,  and  acquired  a 
port  on  the  Pacific  (latitude  43°),  free  of  ice  nearly  all  the  year 
round.  This  was  the  moment  when  that  awakening  of  Northern 
and  Eastern  Asia  began  which  has  become  more  and  more 
active,  especially  during  the  last  ten  years. 

Immediately  after  the  conquest  of  the  Province  of  the  Amur, 
Count  Muravief- Amurski,  one  of  the  prime  movers  in  the 
expansion  of  Russia,  foresaw  under  what  conditions  the  Mus- 
covite Empire  could  make  its  power  felt  in  the  Far  East,  and 
suggested  the  construction  of  a Trans-Siberian  Railway,  which, 
thirty  years  later,  was  undertaken  by  Alexander  III.  In  build- 
ing it,  his  main  idea  was  to  open  a strategic  route  to  facilitate  the 
passage  of  his  troops  into  China.  The  Trans-Siberian  Railway 
was  thus  constructed  far  less  in  the  interests  of  the  country  it 
traversed  than  for  those  of  the  countries  at  its  opposite  ex- 
tremities. But  it  was  presently  discovered  that  the  southern 
portion  of  Siberia  through  which  the  line  runs  possessed  a 
climate  scarcely  more  severe  than  that  of  Manitoba  and  of  the 
far  west  of  Canada,  an  equally  fertile  soil,  with  even  better 
irrigation  and  still  greater  mineral  wealth,  the  development  of 
which  was  only  prevented  by  the  complete  absence  of  any 
means  of  communication. 

Now  Siberia,  instead  of  being  shut  off  from  the  rest  of  the 
world,  will  be  traversed  by  one  of  the  most  frequented  routes 


XVI 


INTRODUCTION 


in  the  universe,  and  its  southern  zone  will  become  one  of  the 
richest  possessions  of  the  white  race.  The  Russian  peasants 
have  a natural  tendency  to  emigrate,  and  since  the  abolition 
of  serfdom  have  been  invading  Siberia  in  great  numbers, 
and  rapidly  settling  there.  More  than  200,000  emigrants 
arrive  there  every  year,  and  the  births  greatly  outnumber 
the  deaths,  so  that  the  population  of  the  Asiatic  domains 
of  the  Tsar  is  annually  increased  by  more  than  300,000. 
Russian  colonization  doubtless  has  its  drawbacks,  the  most 
serious  among  which  are  lack  of  capital  and  absence  of 
education  and  enterprise  among  the  labouring  classes.  In 
spite  of  this,  one  fact  remains:  thanks  to  the  Trans-Siberian 
Railway,  a numerous  white  population  is  already  occupying 
the  whole  North  of  Asia,  from  the  Urals  to  the  Pacific, 
and  thus  Russia  can  meanwhile  make  the  full  weight  of  her 
power  felt  in  the  Far  East,  which  will  certainly  prove  of  incal- 
culable benefit  to  the  advance  of  modern  civilization  through- 
out Asia. 

While  Siberia  was  being  colonized,  and  the  Trans-Siberian 
Railway  was  assuming  definite  shape,  Japan  was  accomplish- 
ing her  extraordinary  transformation.  In  1854  the  Powers, 
under  threat  of  bombardment,  forced  open  the  gates  of  this 
feudal  State,  whose  customs  differed  from  ours  more  than  those 
of  any  other  Asiatic  country,  and  the  entrance  to  which  was 
forbidden  to  foreigners  under  pain  of  death,  and  which  for 
ten  years  was  the  scene  of  numerous  outrages  against  them. 
Forty  - five  years  later  new  Japan  deals  on  a footing  of 
equality  with  the  European  Powers ; its  admission  to  the 
number  of  civilized  States  is  signalized  by  the  suppression 
of  the  extra-territorial  privileges  of  the  Europeans,  and  it 
has  become  a centre  of  great  industry,  whose  cotton  stuffs 
compete  in  China  with  those  of  India,  America,  and  Great 
Britain.  European  steamers  supply  themselves  from  her 
coaling-stations ; her  foreign  commerce  amounts  annually  to 
;^44,ooo,ooo  sterling;  her  soil  is  intersected  by  3,125  miles 

xvii  b 


INTRODUCTION 


of  railway ; a crowd  of  little  steamers,  often  native  built,  ply 
along  her  coasts,  whilst  regular  lines  of  steamers  fly  her  flag 
in  the  ports  of  Europe,  America,  and  Australia ; her  fleet  is 
the  most  powerful  in  the  Pacific;  her  army,  which  crushed 
China  five  years  ago,  formed  the  bulk  of  the  international 
troops  that  recently  marched  to  the  relief  of  the  foreign  Lega- 
tions threatened  by  the  Chinese.  Before  these  realities  the 
scepticism  of  those  who  have  so  long  jeered  at  these  Asiatics 
playing  at  being  Europeans  must  perforce  turn  to  admiration. 

Many  people,  however,  find  it  difficult  to  believe  in  the 
durability  and  the  sincerity  of  Japan’s  transformation.  Without 
concealing  from  ourselves  that  the  prodigious  work  which  has 
been  accomplished  in  Japan  has  sometimes  been  premature, 
that  imitation  of  Europe  has  occasionally  been  pushed  to  excess, 
that  it  has  even  been  directed  in  some  points  where  it  would 
have  been  wiser  to  have  remained  faithful  to  national  traditions, 
we  believe — as  one  of  the  best  informed  Japanese  we  have  ever 
met  assured  us — that  the  great  wind  from  the  West  which  is 
blowing  upon  this  country  has  come  to  last.  We  find  this 
conviction  confirmed  both  by  observation  of  the  Japan  of 
the  present  and  in  the  lessons  taught  by  her  past.  Where 
the  changes  have  been  carried  too  far,  certain  unassimilated 
and  unessential  scoriae  will  be  eliminated,  but  the  better  part 
of  the  work  will  remain  and  a new  Japan  be  the  result,  in  many 
points  similar  to  Europe  in  the  scientific  and  material  sense  of 
civilization — profoundly  modified  and  brought  nearer  to  the 
West,  yet  differing  from  us  from  the  social  and  moral  point  of 
view.  In  short,  we  have  confidence  in  the  future  of  Japan,  if 
she  only  takes  the  lessons  she  has  received  to  heart,  and  if 
she  be  not  over-proud  of  being  the  ‘ Great  Britain  of  the  Far 
East,’  and  is  not  carried  away  by  a spirit  of  aggrandizement 
that  may  exhaust  her  resources.  The  prudent  policy  which 
she  appears  to  have  adopted  in  the  face  of  the  present  crisis 
in  China  is,  however,  of  a character  well  calculated  to  reassure 
her  friends. 

xviii 


INTRODUCTION 


The  study  of  the  Chinese  problem  closes  this  volume.  The 
Celestial  Empire,  so  far  from  being  revivified  like  its  neigh- 
bours, has  resolutely  made  no  concession  to  Western  civiliza- 
tion. As  long  as  China  had  only  to  trouble  over  the  inter- 
mittent and  not  far-reaching  action  of  Western  Powers, 
distracted  by  a thousand  other  cares,  and  whose  commercial 
activity  found  outlets  in  other  directions,  she  had  not  much 
difficulty  in  maintaining  her  isolation. 

From  the  moment,  however,  when  she  found  herself  face  to 
face  with  near  and  powerful  neighbors,  rejuvenated  nations, 
from  whose  eyes  her  incurable  weaknesses  were  not  screened 
by  the  illusion  of  distance,  she  was  destined,  if  she  did  not  yield 
with  a good  grace,  to  be  swept  along  by  the  torrent  of  innovation 
which  she  has  so  long  and  so  vainly  sought  to  resist.  Japan, 
by  her  victories  in  a war  which  was  in  reality  a war  of  Western 
Science  versus  Chinese  Routine,  a war  of  Progress  against 
Stagnation,  in  1895  forced  open  the  gates  of  China.  If  she  had 
not  done  so  then,  undoubtedly  Russia  would  have  achieved 
the  same  work  a few  years  later,  after  the  construction  of  the 
Trans-Siberian  Railway.  The  Middle  Kingdom  no  longer 
frightens  the  world  by  its  vastness,  and  those  innovations  which 
it  abhors  are  now  thrust  upon  it  by  foreigners ; thus  has 
been  brought  about  a situation  pregnant  with  political  and 
economical  consequences  still  further  complicated  by  the 
rivalries  of  the  European  nations  vying  with  each  other  to 
realize  a transformation  from  which  they  hope  to  reap  enormous 
advantages. 

We  have  also  endeavoured  in  this  book  to  note  down 
the  salient  features  of  the  present  position,  the  knowledge 
of  which  may  serve  to  throw  a light  on  the  future  of  the 
Celestial  Empire.  Firstly,  by  recalling  the  detestable  Govern- 
ment imposed  upon  China  by  the  all-powerful  class  of  literati, 
who  remain  petrified  in  their  stubborn  pride,  incurable 
routinists,  and  hostile  to  progress ; then,  in  contrast  to  the 
decrepitude  of  this  Government,  the  vitality  of  the  people, 

b 2 


XIX 


INTRODUCTION 


whose  undeniable  defects  are  compensated  by  an  endurance, 
perseverance,  and  commercial  ability  of  the  highest  order  ; the 
attitude  of  this  people  towards  Europeans  and  their  civilization, 
the  part  hitherto  played  by  the  latter,  their  trade  in  the  ports, 
and  the  quite  recent  beginnings  of  great  industries  in  these 
very  ports ; the  concessions  for  various  undertakings  granted 
during  the  last  four  years  to  these  very  Europeans  who  are  at 
last  emerging  from  the  few  acres  in  which  they  had  hitherto 
been  penned  at  infrequent  points  along  the  coast  or  on  the 
banks  of  the  Yang-tsze,  and  who  are  abandoning  their  exclusive 
devotion  to  trade  in  order  to  carry  out  a system  of  real  colon- 
ization by  applying  Western  methods  to  the  realization  of  the 
wealth  of  China ; and  finally  the  disquieting  spectacle  of  the 
Powers  in  rivalry  around  this  decrepit  Empire,  on  which  none 
dare  lay  a too  heavy  hand  lest  it  crumble  away  and  they  lose 
the  best  pieces,  which  each  of  them  dreams  eventually  of 
annexing. 

Since  this  book  was  published  in  France,  in  April  this  year, 
a particularly  grave  crisis  has  arisen  in  China.  The  most 
violently  reactionary  faction  in  the  Court  of  Peking  has  seized 
the  reins  of  power  and  has  headed  a movement  for  the  ex- 
termination of  the  foreigner  ; the  regular  army,  making  common 
cause  with  the  fanatical  adherents  of  secret  societies,  has  be- 
sieged in  their  Legations  the  Ministers  of  all  the  nations,  and 
has  opposed  the  onward  march  of  the  troops  despatched  to 
their  relief ; hundreds  of  missionaries  and  thousands  of  native 
Christians  have  been  butchered  throughout  the  Empire,  and 
everywhere,  even  in  the  Treaty  Ports,  the  security  of  Europeans 
has  been  menaced.  These  appalling  events  have,  it  would 
seem,  taken  Europe  quite  unprepared,  although  warnings  were 
not  wanting.  A perusal  of  a file  of  the  Hong  Kong  and 
Shanghai  newspapers  will  easily  prove  that  great  uneasiness 
prevailed  as  far  back  as  last  spring,  if  not  in  the  Legations,  at 
any  rate  in  the  Treaty  Ports. 

The  present  crisis  will,  it  is  true,  not  be  a matter  of  much 


XX 


INTRODUCTION 


surprise  to  those  who  have  studied  China.  The  reader  will 
notice  several  passages  in  this  book  in  which  we  are  reminded 
of  the  necessity  of  proceeding  with  the  utmost  caution  in  intro- 
ducing progressive  measures  into  the  ancient  Empire,  if  we 
wish  to  avoid  an  outbreak  culminating  in  a sanguinary  upheaval 
and  the  possible  collapse  of  that  worm-eaten  structure.  It 
would  appear,  however,  in  fact,  that  during  the  past  three 
years  the  ill-advised  action  of  Europe  has  done  everything 
to  bring  about  such  a disaster. 

Too  numerous  railway  and  mining  concessions,  preliminary 
works  commenced  simultaneously  in  a great  number  of  locali- 
ties, without  sufficient  regard  for  the  superstitions  of  the  natives, 
the  invasion  by  foreign  engineers  and  foremen  with  overbearing 
manners,  could  not  but  irritate  the  Chinese,  and  prepare  the 
ground  for  agitators  and  agents  of  the  secret  societies  and 
(unemployed)  literati  who  swarm  everywhere.  The  violent 
action  of  Germany  at  Kiao-chau,  followed  by  the  seizure  of 
many  points  on  the  coast  by  the  other  Powers,  readily  in- 
duced the  Court  and  literati  to  believe  that  the  Foreign 
Powers  intended  to  partition  China,  and  treat  her  as  a con- 
quered country. 

The  governing  classes  among  the  Chinese  have  little  patriot- 
ism, as  we  understand  it,  but  they  tremble  for  their  salaries 
and  privileges,  and,  in  common  with  the  populace,  they 
beheld  with  horror  the  prospective  violation  of  their  ancient 
customs.  They  could  not  therefore  be  expected  to  repress 
with  any  energy  disturbances  with  whose  authors  they  were  in 
cordial  sympathy.  Again,  the  dynasty  of  foreign  origin  which 
reigns  in  China  is  now  worn  out  and  tottering  ; it  knows  that 
any  concession  made  to  the  foreigner  will  be  turned  to  its  dis- 
advantage, that  the  best  means  of  recovering  prestige  is  to 
pose  as  the  enemy  of  the  Western  civilization ; it  has  even  to 
fear  that  any  great  opposition  on  its  part  to  popular  prejudice 
may  one  day  lead  to  its  being  swept  away. 

What  wonder,  then,  that  under  the  rule  of  the  old  Dowagei 

xxi 


INTRODUCTION 


Empress — an  energetic  Sovereign,  perhaps,  but  ignorant,  like 
the  harem  recluse  she  is,  and,  moreover,  passionate,  like  most 
women — the  Court  viewed  benignly  the  organization  known 
as  the  J-ho-chuan,  almost  literally,  ‘ League  of  Patriots,’ 
which  we  call  ‘Boxers,’  who  first  spread  themselves  over  Shan- 
tung, where  the  foreigners  had  displayed  the  greatest  brutality 
and  tactlessness  ! The  creatures  of  the  Empress,  narrow- 
minded and  brutal  Manchu  princes,  mandarins  of  an  ultra- 
reactionary type,  who,  having  never  been  brought  into  contact 
with  Europeans,  are  ignorant  of  the  latter’s  strength — all  these 
people  whom  the  Palace  revolution  in  September,  1898,  exalted 
to  power,  and  who  exercise  it  without  control  since  the  exile 
of  Li  Hung-chang  to  his  distant  Viceroyalty  of  Canton,  have 
not  learned  how  to  observe  the  precautions  which  at  one  time 
guided  that  wily  old  fox. 

Imperial  edicts  have  favoured  the  Boxers,  ‘ those  loyal  sub- 
jects who  cultivate  athletics  for  the  protection  of  their  families, 
and  who  bind  together  different  villages  for  the  purpose  of  mutual 
protection.’  In  this  association,  affiliated  with  other  secret 
societies,  it  was  sought  to  discover  a prop  for  the  dynasty 
both  at  home  and  abroad.  Arms  were  procured  from  Europe, 
intended  either  for  the  rebels  or  the  regular  army,  and  then, 
as  always  happens  with  feeble  Governments  in  times  of  trouble, 
it  was  found  impossible  to  stem  the  torrent  so  easily  let  loose, 
and  increasing  violence  soon  got  the  upper  hand.  The 
Empress  even  appears  to  have  been  overwhelmed  by  factions 
more  reactionary  and  fanatical  than  herself — factions  at  whose 
head  stands  Prince  Tuan,  father  of  the  recently  adopted  heir- 
presumptive. 

Such  is  the  genesis  of  the  present  crisis.  What  are  to  be 
the  consequences  ? They  would  be  very  grave  if  the  chiefs  of 
the  movement  hostile  to  foreigners  removed  the  present  Em- 
peror to  some  distant  place,  and  refused  to  negotiate  on  any- 
thing like  reasonable  terms,  or  if,  leaving  him  in  the  hands  of 
the  Europeans,  they  should  raise  a competitor  against  him. 

xxii 


INTRODUCTION 


The  Emperor,  whose  accession  to  the  Celestial  throne  is,  in  any 
case,  according  to  Chinese  ideas,  irregular,  and  who  has  exas- 
perated the  mandarins  by  his  attempts  at  reform,  would  thus 
run  a great  risk  of  being  considered  a usurper,  both  in  the  eyes 
of  the  people  and  the  literati.  What  could  the  Powers  do  in 
such  a case?  We  hardly  dare  dream  of  such  a laborious, 
costly,  and  deadly  undertaking  as  would  be  an  expedition 
five  or  six  hundred  miles  from  the  coast  into  the  heart  of  a 
country  like  China,  devoid  of  good  means  of  transport,  and 
where  a large  European  army  would  find  existence  difficult. 
Besides,  in  the  midst  of  complete  anarchy  and  civil  war,  the 
Powers,  whose  union  is  already  so  unstable,  would  be  forced 
to  interfere,  with  the  risk  of  irreparable  disputes  arising  between 
them  all  at  the  finish. 

Even  if  the  Court  should  come  to  terms  and  no  compe- 
tition for  the  Empire  arise,  the  situation  in  China  will 
none  the  less  present  great  difficulties.  The  installation  in 
Peking  of  an  Emperor  surrounded  by  councillors  approved  by 
the  West  and  watched  by  a foreign  garrison,  which  would  be 
the  most  desirable  end  of  the  present  acute  crisis,  would  not 
suffice  to  restore  order  throughout  the  Empire.  All  the  elements 
of  agitation  are  now  at  boiling-point,  and  it  is  even  to  be 
feared  that  ere  the  allies  are  able  to  act  vigorously  on  the 
offensive,  the  anti-foreign  movement  will  have  gained  ground 
in  the  provinces.  The  prestige  of  the  Manchu  dynasty, 
greatly  damaged  already,  will  be  still  further  lowered  when 
the  Emperor  is  exhibited  as  the  puppet  of  the  West.  Ambitious 
aspirants  of  all  sorts,  Chinese  patriots  inimical  to  both 
Manchu  and  foreigner,  even  legitimate  representatives  of  the 
ancient  Ming  Dynasty,  will  all  of  them  seek  to  profit  by  this 
state  of  things,  and,  fishing  in  troubled  waters,  cause  thereby 
a general  recrudescence  of  insurrection,  fomented  by  the  secret 
societies.  Will  the  Chinese  Government  succeed  in  repressing 
them  by  its  own  forces  ? This  is  not  at  all  certain,  and  in  that 
case  will  Europe  charge  herself  with  all  the  political,  military, 

xxiii 


INTRODUCTION 


and  financial  risks  involved  in  the  exercise  of  such  an  avocation 
and  become  the  police  of  China  ? 

It  will  perhaps  be  said  that  if  the  Manchu  Dynasty  can  no 
longer  maintain  itself,  it  may  be  best  to  leave  it  to  its  fate 
and  allow  it  to  be  replaced  by  another.  A new,  popular,  and 
strong  Government  would  then  appear  upon  the  scene,  which 
would  find  it  easier  to  observe  the  engagements  imposed 
upon  it.* 

But  apart  from  the  fact  that  this  new  Government  might 
perhaps  be  very  hostile  to  foreigners  and  difficult  to  bring 
to  reason,  the  Manchus  are  not  yet  stripped  of  all  power, 
and  their  overthrow  would  not  be  efifected  without  a devas- 
tating civil  war,  lasting  probably  many  years.  Europe  is 
now  too  much  interested  in  China  to  encourage  such  a catas- 
trophe. 

On  the  other  hand,  nobody  desires  the  partition  of  the 
Celestial  Empire.  To  begin  with,  the  chief  eventual  rivals  are 
not  ready  : Russia  has  not  completed  her  Trans-Siberian  Rail- 
way ; England  is  hampered  with  her  interminable  war  in  South 
Africa  ; the  United  States,  with  a large  portion  of  its  population 
opposed  to  outside  extension,  insists  that  no  part  of  the  Middle 
Kingdom  shall  be  closed  to  them — in  other  words,  that  it  shall 
not  be  dismembered  ; Japan  has  not  completed  her  armaments  ; 
her  finances  require  careful  attention,  and  she  feels,  besides, 
that  she  cannot  act  alone.  France  has  every  reason  for  avert- 
ing a partition,  in  which  her  share  (the  provinces  adjoining 
Tongking)  would  be  a very  poor  one ; and  finally,  the  present 
insurrectionary  movement  should  prove  to  the  world — including 
Germany,  who  took  so  indiscreet  an  initiative  at  Kiao-chau 
— that  it  would  not  be  easy  to  govern  the  Celestials  after 

• The  position  of  the  Manchu  Dynasty  in  China  is  somewhat  analogous 
to  that  of  the  Shogunate  in  Japan,  which  was  also  caught  some  forty  years 
ago  between  the  national  sentiment  and  the  foreigner.  But  in  Japan, 
when  the  Shogunate  fell,  there  remained  the  divine  Emperor,  whose 
prestige  covered  all  the  reforms  which  enlightened  statesmen  carried  out. 
In  China,  after  the  Manchu  Dynasty,  nothing  remains  but  chaos. 


XXIV 


INTRODUCTION 


European  methods,  and  that  the  mere  task  of  establishing  order 
in  a large  colony  carved  out  of  China  might  be  beyond  the 
strength  even  of  the  European  Powers. 

This  being  the  case,  the  only  policy  possible  for  all  countries 
is  to  abandon  for  the  present  their  personal  aims,  and  to 
endeavour  in  unison  to  patch  up  the  Manchu  system.  To 
depart  from  this  line  of  action  is  to  proceed  to  disaster.  But 
the  Powers  will  have  to  display  some  wisdom  for  a few  years 
to  come  if  this  bolstering  process  is  to  have  the  least  chance 
of  success.  The  Court  and  the  populace  of  the  capital  should 
be  given  a not-easily-forgotten  lesson  : let  the  instigators  of 
the  proposed  murders  of  the  ministers  be  delivered  up  and 
made  to  pay  for  their  cowardly  conduct ; if  necessary,  even 
let  their  bodies  be  left  unburied,  which,  in  the  eyes  of  the 
Chinese,  is  the  most  terrible  of  all  punishments ; let  the  old 
Empress  be  exiled  if  it  should  appear  necessary  to  remove  her 
from  power.  But  after  all  this  is  done,  let  the  legal  order  of 
succession  be  respected.  While  putting  pressure  on  the  Court 
to  appoint  moderate  or  even  slightly  progressive  men  to  the 
head  of  affairs,  avoid  a too  direct  and  a too  evident  interference 
in  the  selection  of  rulers,  which  would  be  perilously  inadvisable. 
On  the  one  hand,  the  Powers  would  soon  cease  to  act  in 
unison,  each  considering  such  and  such  a grand  mandarin 
more  or  less  its  friend  and  such  another  its  enemy ; and  on 
the  other  hand,  the  men  chosen  would  lose  all  authority,  as 
they  would  be  looked  upon  as  agents  of  the  foreigners.  Against 
this,  it  is  absolutely  indispensable  that  Peking  and  Tien-tsin 
should  be  occupied  during  several  years  by  a strong  garrison, 
otherwise  it  will  be  said  that  the  foreign  soldiery  have  de- 
parted through  fear,  and  that  the  permanent  fortification  of 
Ta-ku  should  be  forbidden. 

These  last  measures  doubtless  involve  certain  inconveniences, 
granting  the  difficulty  of  maintaining  harmony  between  the 
various  Powers,  but  if  they  should  be  neglected  the  lesson 
would  risk  being  too  soon  forgotten,  as  were  those  of  i860  and 


XXV 


INTRODUCTION 


1894-95  ; moreover,  they  would  provide  a means  of  permanent 
pressure  on  the  Chinese  Government. 

Nevertheless,  if  it  is  important  to  strike  hard  at  the  centre, 
the  more  reason  have  we  to  refrain  from  any  act  calculated  to 
lower  in  the  provinces  the  prestige  and  the  authority  of  a regime, 
the  sources  of  whose  weakness  are  already  numerous.  The 
threat  of  popular  risings  will  continue  one  of  the  serious 
dangers  of  the  position  in  the  Far  East;  to  avoid  them,  we 
must  not  seize  upon  the  first  incident  that  arises  as  a pretext 
for  demanding  concessions,  the  extortion  of  which  disturbs 
and  estranges  the  mandarins,  whilst  their  execution  irritates 
the  people.  If  we  do  not  accept  such  a course,  we  run  the 
risk  of  creating  permanent  anarchy.  The  surest  way  of  obtain- 
ing tranquillity  in  China  would  be  a formal,  or  at  any  rate  a 
tacit,  international  understanding  binding  the  Powers  for  some 
years  not  to  support  at  Peking  any  demand  for  a concession  as 
long  as  the  greater  number  of  railways  now  under  construction 
are  not  completed.  That  would,  moreover,  enable  European 
capitalists,  who  have  not  been  very  eager  to  take  up  Chinese 
loans,  to  ascertain  the  value  of  their  investments  in  the  Middle 
Kingdom.  We  believe  that  the  business  and  practical  sense  so 
highly  developed  in  the  Chinese  will  induce  them  to  become 
reconciled  to  the  material  side  of  our  civilization,  but  by  multi- 
plying simultaneously  in  every  direction  preliminary  works,  say, 
for  railways,  we  annoy  them  and  wound  their  susceptibilities 
before  giving  them  a chance  to  appreciate  the  advantage  of 
our  innovations,  not  to  mention  the  economical  disturbance 
arising  therefrom. 

In  conclusion,  although  patriotism  is  at  a low  ebb  in  the  ‘ 
Middle  Kingdom  and  the  military  spirit  still  lower,  we  might, 
by  worrying  the  Chinese  too  much,  end  by  creating  the  one 
and  resuscitating  the  other.  In  any  case,  if  the  Chinese  make 
bad  soldiers — chiefly  because  they  have  detestable  officers— 
they  are  first-class  rioters.  Wherefore  any  idea  of  dividing 
China,  either  now  or  at  some  future  time,  seems  to  us  ill- 

xxvi 


INTRODUCTION 


advised.  Passing  events  will  have  taught  a useful  lesson, 
should  they  bring  Europe  to  abandon  once  and  for  ever  this 
fatal  idea.  It  was  very  wisely  said  in  the  English  Parliament 
during  the  present  crisis  that  ‘ China  must  be  governed  by  the 
Chinese  and  for  the  Chinese,’  which  does  not  mean  that  it 
should  be  governed  against  the  foreigners.  Let  us  hope  that 
all  Europe  will  frankly  take  to  heart  this  sagacious  remark. 

PIERRE  LEROY-BEAULIEU. 


XXVll 


THE 

AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


PART  I.— SIBERIA 

CHAPTER  I. 

THE  ORIGINS  OF  RUSSIAN  EXPANSION  IN  SIBERIA  AND  THE 
NATURAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  COUNTRY 

Antiqnity  of  Russian  expansion  in  Asia,  which  is  contemporary  with  that  of 
Western  Europe  in  the  New  World — Analogy  between  the  North  of 
Asia  and  the  North  of  America — The  three  natural  Zones  of  Siberia — 
Their  climate,  extent  and  capabilities — The  Polar  Zone  is  absolutely 
sterile  and  uninhabitable — The  Forest  Zone — The  Meridional  Zone, 
which  is  both  cultivable  and  colonizable. 

No  sooner  had  Russia  shaken  off  the  yoke  of  the  Tatars  which 
weighed  upon  her  for  three  centuries,  and  left  its  mark  so 
deeply  impressed  as  to  be  still  visible,  than,  reformed  and 
united,  she  began  to  expand  beyond  her  natural  confines.  In 
this  she  only  imitated  the  example  of  Spain,  which  a short 
time  previously  had  been  delivered  from  the  Moors  and  united 
under  the  sceptre  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  Being  essentially 
a continental  country,  without  easy  access  to  the  sea,  and 
having  no  difficult  frontier  to  bar  her  expansion  to  the  East, 
Russia  turned  her  attention  in  that  direction,  and,  defeating 
her  old  masters,  annexed  the  Tatar  kingdoms  of  Kazan  and 
Astrakhan.  This  conquest  extended  her  frontier  to  the  imme- 
diate neighbourhood  of  the  Ural  Mountains.  In  the  second 
half  of  the  sixteenth  century  Tsar  Ivan  the  Terrible  found 

I B 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


himself  possessor  of  vast  but  sparsely-peopled  regions,  at  a 
great  distance  from  his  capital,  and  extremely  difficult  of  direct 
administration. 

It  is  a remarkable  coincidence  that  under  these  circum- 
stances an  organization  should  have  been  formed  in  Russia 
almost  spontaneously  with  others  of  the  same  kind  which  were 
to  prove  of  such  great  utility  in  the  West — i.e.,  a great  colonizing 
company,  under  Imperial  charter.  The  Strogonofs,  very  rich 
merchants,  who  had  extended  their  sphere  of  trading  opera- 
tions as  far  as  the  basin  of  the  Kama,  the  great  affluent  of  the 
Volga,  addressed  in  1558  a petition  to  the  Tsar,  in  which  they 
demanded  a concession  of  the  lands  in  that  region,  promising 
at  the  same  time,  in  consideration  of  the  grant,  to  build  a 
city,  develop  the  resources,  and  defend  the  country  against 
the  attacks  of  savage-  tribes.  Ivan  the  Terrible  acceded 
to  their  request,  accorded  them  divers  trading  privileges,  and 
conferred  upon  them  the  right  to  administer  justice  and  to 
levy  troops.  Thus  was  organized  a regular  chartered  company 
analogous  with  the  East  India  Company  and  with  those  more 
recently  formed  in  South  .Africa  and  on  the  banks  of  the  Niger. 
The  company  in  question  began  the  conquest  of  Siberia. 

The  Strogonofs,  once  established  on  the  Kama,  experienced, 
as  generally  happens  when  a civilized  people  finds  itself  in 
contact  with  barbarous  tribes,  the  necessity  of  extending 
further  eastwards  at  the  expense  of  their  Tatar  neighbours, 
if  only  to  protect  themselves  from  their  depredations.  Jn  1581 
the  Tsar  gave  them  permission  to  employ  a celebrated  Cossack 
pirate,  Ermak  Timofeef  * who  seized  the  city  of  Sibir,  or  Isker, 
then  capital  of  Khan  Kuchun,  the  principal  Tatar  chief  of 
Western  Siberia.  Six  years  later  the  present  city  of  Tobolsk 
rose  on  the  site  of  Sibir. 

We  will  not  attempt  to  narrate  the  history  of  the  conquest 
of  Siberia,  which  strongly  resembles  the  taking  of  North 
America  by  French  pioneers  at  about  the  same  time.  WTien 
the  Tatar  tribes  of  the  West  had  been  driven  towards  the 
Southern  Steppes,  the  Cossacks  encountered  little  opposition 
from  the  poor  hunters  and  fishermen  whom  they  found  in  the 
district.  In  summer  these  Cossack  adventurers  navigated 
the  rivers  in  canoes,  whilst  their  winters  were  spent  in  block- 

* ‘Yermak,’  the  millstone,  was  the  nickname  given  to  Vassil,  son  of 
Timothy,  a tracker  of  the  Volga,  because  he  ground  the  com  for  his  party. 
He  was  not  a Cossack  by  birth,  but  joined  the  Don  Cossack  pirates. — H.  N. 

2 


SIBERIA 


houses,  or  os/rogs,  surrounded  by  palisades  not  unlike  the  forts 
erected  by  the  Hudson  Bay  Company.  Soon  they  became 
very  numerous,  being  attracted  from  the  more  civilized  parts  of 
Russia  by  the  growing  profits  of  the  fur  trade.  In  1636  they 
had  reached  the  mouth  of  the  Yenissei,  and  a year  later  arrived 
on  the  banks  of  the  Lena.  In  less  than  two  years— that  is,  in 
1639 — they  had  discovered  the  shores  of  the  Okhotsk,  and  fifty 
years  later  the  whole  continent  had  been  traversed  from  end  to 
end.  In  1648  the  Cossack  adventurers  Alexief  and  Dezhnief 
doubled  the  eastern  extremity  of  Asia,  and  arrived  at  Kamt- 
chatka,  and  in  1651  the  Ataman  Khabarof  established  himself 
on  the  Amur,  where  he  discovered  other  adventurers,  who  had 
already  descended  this  river  in  1643.  At  this  juncture  the 
Russians  found  themselves  face  to  face  with  the  Manchus,  who 
had  just  conquered  China,  and  notwithstanding  the  heroic 
defence  of  their  fortress  at  Albazine  on  two  occasions,  they 
were  obliged  in  1688  to  abandon  the  middle  and  lower  basins 
of  the  Amur  to  the  Sons  of  Heaven  in  accordance  with  the 
treaty  of  Nertchinsk,  a territory  which  they  only  reconquered 
from  the  degenerate  Chinese  in  1858. 

To  the  west  as  well  as  to  the  east  of  Siberia  the  Russian 
frontiers  remained  scarcely  altered  until  about  the  middle  of 
the  present  century.  It  was  only  in  1847  that  the  Tsar’s 
troops  were  able  to  cross  the  arid  zone  of  the  Kirghiz  Steppes. 
The  policy  of  Peter  the  Great  was  directed  towards  Europe, 
and  his  dream  was  to  extend  Russia  towards  the  West  by  the 
conquest  of  Constantinople — a fact  which  accounts  for  the 
extinction  of  zeal  on  the  part  of  Russia  with  respect  to  her 
Asiatic  possessions,  which  were  now  treated  merely  as  penal 
settlements  or  as  fields  for  scientific  investigation,  whenever 
the  Sovereigns  took  it  into  their  heads  to  become  specially 
interested  in  such  matters.  The  increase  of  Imperial  authority 
and  the  more  regular  organization  of  the  State  had  in  the 
meantime  subdued  the  adventurous  and  enterprising  spirit  of 
the  Cossacks,  and  that  particular  class  of  men,  half  soldiers, 
half  brigands,  who  had  proved  themselves  such  hardy  pioneers 
at  an  earlier  epoch,  now  disappeared,  and  in  the  middle  of 
the  eighteenth  century  Siberia  was  opened  as  a field  of  coloni- 
zation. In  spite  of  the  many  obstacles  which  the  system  of 
serfdom  in  Russia  placed  in  the  way  of  peasant  emigration,  in 
1851  the  population  of  Siberia  had  reached  2,400,000,  a figure 
which,  although  not  very  large  considering  the  immensity  of 

3 B 2 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


the  country,  was  in  excess  of  the  population  of  Canada  at  the 
same  period,  which  numbered  only  1,800,000  souls.  From 
this  point  of  view  the  Russians  had  no  reason  to  be  ashamed 
of  their  colonization,  and,  as  a matter  of  fact,  have  none  to- 
day. According  to  the  census  of  January,  1897,  there  were 
S>73i>732  Siberians  living  on  a territory  of  4,812,800  square 
miles,  whereas  in  1891  there  were  only  4,833,000  Canadians 
inhabiting  the  3,721,800  square  miles  known  as  the  Dominion. 
The  density  of  the  population  of  Northern  Asia  is  not  much 
inferior  to  that  of  British  North  America,  and  it  must  not  be 
forgotten  that  the  conditions  of  life  in  Siberia  are  greatly 
inferior  to  those  of  Canada. 

A comparison  of  the  natural  conditions  existing  in  the 
northern  regions  of  the  old  and  the  new  world  shows  that 
they  are  nearly  identical.  Both  consist  for  the  most  part  of 
vast  expanses  of  flat  country,  often  covered  with  magnificent 
forests,  and  quite  as  frequently  barren.  Siberia,  like  Canada, 
is  irrigated  by  noble  rivers,  which  under  a milder  climate 
would  constitute  a superb  network  of  intercommunication ; 
but  unfortunately  both  countries  are  hampered  by  an  extremely 
rigorous  climate,  which  imprisons  these  fine  rivers  during 
many  months  of  the  year  under  an  impenetrably  thick  coating 
of  ice.  In  the  north  of  Siberia  as  well  as  of  Canada  the 
country  is  so  intensely  cold  as  to  render  agriculture  impossible. 
That  part,  therefore,  of  both  countries  which  is  capable  of 
exploitation  is  of  extremely  limited  extent,  consisting  both  in 
Russian  Asia  and  in  British  North  America  of  a ribbon-like 
zone  some  3,720  miles  in  length  and  from  250  to  300  in  width. 

If  Siberia  resembles  Canada  in  some  things,  it  must  be  con- 
fessed that  the  latter  country  has  every  advantage  in  point  of 
beauty  and  position.  In  the  first  place,  Siberia  is  more  to  the 
north  ; that  portion  which  approaches  nearest  to  the  Equator  is 
situated  about  43°  latitude — that  is  to  say,  a little  more  to  the 
north  than  the  extreme  south  of  Upper  Canada,  and,  being  on 
the  Pacific,  it  is  most  distant  from  European  Russia,  whereas 
the  corresponding  part  of  Canada  is  the  nearest  to  England, 
and  washed  by  the  Atlantic,  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  the  great 
lakes.  On  the  other  hand,  that  part  of  Siberia  which  is  closest 
to  Russia  is  covered  to  the  south  by  barren  steppes  or  by 
mountains  which  confine  the  centres  of  civilization  between 
54°  and  57°  latitude.  Moreover,  whereas  the  coast  of  Canada 
on  the  Pacific  enjoys  a much  milder  climate  than  the  country 

4 


SIBERIA 


situated  on  the  other  side  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  the  regions 
of  Siberia  which  border  the  Great  Ocean  are  just  as  frigid  as  the 
rest  of  the  country.  The  heights  which  separate  the  basin  of 
the  Amur  from  that  of  the  Lena  are  not  sufficiently  elevated  to 
form  a barrier  against  piercing  north  winds,  and  the  Japanese 
Archipelago  interposes  itself  between  the  coast  and  the  warm 
waters  of  the  Black  Current,  which  plays  the  same  part  in  the 
Pacific  as  the  Gulf  Stream  in  the  Atlantic.  Thus  it  happens 
that  the  climate  of  Trans-Baikalia,  where  the  rivers  which, 
when  united,  form  the  Amur  take  their  source,  is  one  of  the 
most  rigorous  in  Siberia,  and  the  sea  is  covered  with  ice  in  the 
port  of  Vladivostok,  which  lies  in  the  same  latitude  as  Mar- 
seilles, whereas,  opposite  on  the  American  coast,  seven  degrees 
northward,  the  winters  of  British  Columbia  are  not  more  severe 
than  those  of  Holland  or  the  West  of  Germany. 

Notwithstanding  its  terrible  climate,  Siberia  is  not  entirely 
uninhabitable ; indeed,  even  on  the  borders  of  the  Arctic 
Ocean  humanity  is  represented  by  a few  aboriginal  Polar 
tribes,  who  wander  from  place  to  place  in  sledges  drawn  by 
dogs,  and  usually  followed  by  a numerous  herd  of  reindeer. 
The  white  man,  however,  cannot  endure  the  conditions  pre- 
vailing in  the  extreme  north,  and  it  is  therefore  necessary 
with  a view  to  colonizing  that  one  must  learn  to  distinguish 
between  the  different  parts  of  Siberia. 

The  country  has  been  judiciously  divided  into  three  zones, 
which  are,  proceeding  from  north  to  south,  the  Tundra  (or 
Arctic  Moss)  Zone,  the  Great  Forest  Zone,  and  lastly  the 
Agricultural  Zone ; the  south  and  south-west  of  the  last- 
named  includes,  the  steppes,  as  well  as  the  Altai  and  Sayan 
Mountains.  It  would  be  impossible  to  trace  a line  of  exact 
demarcation  between  these  different  zones,  for  the  transition 
is  extremely  gradual ; but,  speaking  generally,  the  land  situated 
north  of  63°  and  64°  latitude  is  barren  of  all  vegetation  except- 
ing mosses  and  lichens.  The  subsoil  is  eternally  frozen,  but 
the  surface  thaws  in  summer  very  slightly,  thereby  turning 
the  country  into  one  vast  marsh.  The  rivers  remain  frozen 
during  nine  months  of  the  year.  Under  these  circumstances, 
cultivation  is  out  of  the  question.  To  the  south-western 
limit  of  this  zone,  at  Beriozof  on  the  Obi,  the  medium  tem- 
perature all  the  year  round  is  5°  C.  below  zero,  and  in  winter 
it  goes  down  to  23°.  The  average  in  summer  is  13*5°,  and 
that  of  the  hottest  month  18°,  which  is  about  the  same  as 

5 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 

the  heat  in  Paris  in  July ; but  the  warm  weather  lasts  so  short 
a time  as  to  be  useless  for  agricultural  purposes.  To  the 
east  the  climate  becomes  rapidly  severe,  and  at  Verkhoyansk,  a 
village  situated  in  the  Yakutsk  district,  latitude  67°,  one  of  the 
coldest  regions  in  our  hemisphere  is  reached.  The  average 
throughout  the  year  is  17°  C.  below  zero;  during  the  three 
winter  months  it  is  47°,  and  in  January  49°.  The  minimum  is 
about  68°  below  zero.  What  characterizes  this  dreadful  region 
is  that  to  the  extreme  cold  in  winter  succeeds  a very  short  but 
relatively  warm  summer.  The  medium  thermometrical  reading 
during  the  warm  season  is  13°,  which  rises  to  15°  for  the  month 
of  July,  during  which  the  mercury  sometimes  rises  to  25°  in 
the  shade.  The  difference  between  the  temperature  of  the 
warmest  and  the  coldest  months  of  the  year  is  about  64°,  that 
is  to  say,  four  times  what  it  is  in  Paris.  It  is  very  remarkable 
that  in  whatever  direction  you  go  from  Verkhoyansk,  even 
northward,  the  climate  becomes  less  rigorous,  thanks  to  the 
comparative  mildness  of  the  winter.  As  to  the  summer,  it 
scarcely  merits  the  name,  falling  to  9°  and  even  to  3°  C.  on  the 
borders  of  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

In  such  unfavourable  conditions,  it  is  not  surprising  that 
the  1,600,000  square  miles  which  comprise  the  Tundra  Zone 
only  support  between  60,000  and  80,000  inhabitants,  mostly 
Samoyeds,  Ostiaks,  Chuckchis,  Lamuts,  and  other  miserable 
Arctic  tribes,  among  whom  live,  or  rather  vegetate,  a few 
Russian  officials  and  a fairly  numerous  group  of  exiles.  The 
reindeer,  whilst  serving  as  a means  of  transport,  is  also  used  as 
food,  and  its  hide  furnishes  the  natives  with  clothing.  There 
is  no  other  domestic  animal  excepting  the  powerful  Polar 
dog  which  drags  the  sleighs.  Whether  this  part  of  Siberia 
will  ever  become  of  any  ultimate  use  is  at  present  hard  to  say, 
but  we  may  take  it  for  granted  that  it  will  only  be  through  the 
discovery  of  a mineral  wealth,  the  existence  of  which  is  unknown 
at  the  present  time,  that  the  Polar  Zone  of  Siberia  will  ever 
attract  even  a temporary  settlement  of  colonists. 

To  the  south  of  the  Tundra  begin  the  Great  Forests.  At 
first  the  trees  are  sparse  and  stunted,  and  only  an  experienced 
botanist  can  recognise  the  distinctive  characteristics  of  the 
larch ; the  trees,  however,  become  loftier  as  the  climate 
moderates  and  the  summer  lengthens.  The  larches,  firs  and 
pines  rise  to  a great  height,  and  become  at  last  so  thick  as  to 
prevent  the  sun  drying  the  damp  soil  of  the  Taiga,  or  primeval 

6 


SIBERIA 


forest.  The  banks  of  the  rivers  are  invariably  covered  by 
immense  marshes,  the  most  extensive  of  which  are  those  to  be 
met  with  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Obi  and  the  Irtysh. 
When  the  snow  begins  to  melt,  the  inundations  extend  to 
considerably  over  six  miles  on  either  side  of  the  ill-defined 
river-banks.  The  climate  of  this  region  is  extremely  severe,  the 
winters  frightfully  cold,  but  the  summers  fairly  warm.  The 
frost  lasts  only  seven  instead  of  eight  months;  the  subsoil, 
however,  is  eternally  frozen,  and  agriculture  is  only  possible  in 
certain  spots  and  demands  constant  attention.  It  is  evident, 
however,  that  this  zone,  which  covers  about  2,320,000  square 
miles,  that  is  to  say  about  half  Siberia,  will  never  be  able  to 
support  a dense  population ; still,  with  its  great  forests  it  is 
much  more  valuable  than  the  more  northern  or  Polar  regions. 
If  it  is  possible  to  prevent  these  Siberian  forests  from  under- 
going the  same  process  of  devastation  which  has  befallen  those 
of  Northern  America,  they  may  become  of  enormous  value. 
Moreover,  there  exist  in  their  midst  some  very  important  gold- 
mines, especially  near  the  Yenissei  and  in  the  basin  of  the 
Olekma,  one  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Lena,  not  a few  of  which 
are  already  being  satisfactorily  exploited.  There  is  therefore 
hope  that  in  due  time  these  vast  regions  now  covered  with 
forests  and  marshes  may  be  able  to  support  a much  larger 
population  than  the  actual  one,  which  does  not  exceed  700,000 
souls,  mostly  Russians  and  natives. 

If  we  abstract  from  the  total  extent  of  Siberia  the 
1,600,000  square  miles  of  Tundra,  and  the  2,320,000  square 
miles  of  forest  land,  there  remain  nearly  900,000  square  miles 
which  form  the  cultivable  zone,  the  only  one  which  will  ever  be 
capable  of  supporting  anything  like  a dense  population.  This 
region  is  not  perceptibly  distinguishable  from  that  of  the 
forests  by  any  marked  change  in  the  landscape,  unless  it  be  to 
the  west,  where  the  great  green  trees  that  usually  flourish  in 
milder  climes  form  an  agreeable  contrast  to  the  everlasting 
pines  and  firs.  Then,  again,  the  presence  of  cereals  is  very 
noticeable,  the  late  summer  being  of  sufficient  length  to 
enable  wheat,  barley  and  oats  to  ripen.  So  long  as  the  seed 
remains  under  the  snow  it  matters  little  how  intense  the  cold 
may  be  above ; but  when  once  the  snow  melts  it  becomes 
absolutely  necessary  for  the  heat  to  be  sufficiently  great  during 
a prolonged  period  to  enable  the  grain  to  germinate,  and  above 
all  it  is  necessary  that  the  autumnal  frosts  should  not  occur 

7 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


before  the  com  has  had  sufficient  time  to  ripen.  At  Nertchinsk 
in  Trans-Baikalia  the  winter  is  often  much  more  rigorous  than  at 
Beriozof  on  the  Obi,  and  yet  corn  ripens  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  first-named  town,  for  the  simple  reason  that  the  tempera- 
ture between  May  and  September,  although  not  many  degrees 
higher,  remains  equable  much  longer.  It  is  rather  to  the 
brief  period  during  which  the  sun  has  any  power  than  to  the 
intensity  of  the  heat  or  the  excess  of  cold  that  may  be  attributed 
the  difficulty  of  rendering  these  extreme  northern  regions  of 
any  agricultural  value.  Notwithstanding  that  the  cultivable 
zone  of  Siberia  is  so  extremely  limited,  it  covers  an  area  five 
times  the  size  of  France  and  equal  to  half  the  cultivable  sphere 
of  Russia  in  Europe,  which  is  also  afflicted  with  glacial  and 
sterile  zones.  This  more  fortunate  section  of  Siberia  may,  and 
doubtless  will,  offer  for  a long  time  to  come  an  admirable  field 
for  Russian  emigration. 


t 


CHAPTER  II 


THE  LAND  OF  SIBERIA  AND  ITS  INHABITANTS 

Siberia  a prolongation  of  Russia  in  Europe — Marked  resemblance  in 
scenery  and  climate  between  the  two  countries — Insignificance  of  the 
indigenous  population,  especially  towards  the  West — Facilities  of  colo- 
nization— Preponderance  of  the  Russian  element  in  the  agricultural 
rone — Indigenous  elements  : Polar  tribes  diminishing;  Mongol  popu- 
lation increasing,  but  much  more  slowly  than  the  Russian — Asiatic 
immigration  to  the  east  of  the  cultivable  zone — Heterogeneous  elements 
imported  from  Europe — ^Jews  and  Raskolniks. 

After  crossing  the  beautifully  wooded  valleys  and  the  chain 
of  hills  known  as  the  Ural  Mountains,  the  traveller  arrives  at 
Cheliabinsk,  situated  in  the  Great  Plain,  and  can  scarcely 
believe  that  1,200  miles  of  railway  separate  him  from  Moscow, 
so  striking  is  the  resemblance  between  the  scenery  around 
him  and  that  of  Central  Russia,  notably  in  the  Governments 
of  Tula  and  Riazan.  In  the  open  spaces  rise  tufts  of 
delicate  verdure,  beyond  which,  here  and  there,  appear  the 
gray  outlines  of  some  village,  consisting  of  rows  of  wooden 
houses  surrounded  by  fields.  The  only  striking  difference 
between  the  appearance  of  this  country  and  Central  Russia 
consists  in  the  predominance  of  the  birch  between  the  Ural 
and  the  Obi.  For  nearly  1,200  miles  no  other  tree  shades  the 
absolutely  flat  country.  It  is  the  same  with  the  wild  flowers, 
among  which  I noticed  the  Kaborski  tcha'i,  with  its  long  pink 
spiral  blossoms,  which  recall  those  of  the  digitalis.  It  is  not 
surprising  that  a Russian  territory  bearing  such  a singular 
resemblance  to  the  mother  country  should  prove  attractive 
to  Russian  emigrants.  The  winter  here,  however,  is  un- 
doubtedly both  longer  and  colder;  the  summer  is  a little  hotter, 
and  the  mosquitoes  much  more  troublesome ; but,  on  the  other 
hand,  land  is  freer,  and  the  peasant  is  no  longer  confined 

9 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


in  the  very  narrow  space  granted  in  the  old  country  to 
his  father  at  the  time  of  the  emancipation  of  the  serfs, 
and  which,  at  his  death,  he  has  been  obliged  to  share  with 
his  brothers.  If  one  is  surprised  to  notice  during  the  first  few 
days’  journey  by  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway  so  few  villages, 
the  reason  is  not  far  to  find.  The  line  passes  a little  to  the 
south  of  the  colonized  region,  and  borders  the  insufficiently- 
watered  steppes  where  the  Kirghiz  graze  their  cattle.  From 
time  to  time  the  traveller  perceives  in  the  plain  the  circular 
huts  and  even  the  tents  of  these  nomads,  and  not  unfrequently 
at  the  stations  he  may  meet  with  a number  of  them,  with  their 
beady  black  eyes,  their  yellow  complexions,  and  their  closely- 
shaven  heads  contrasting  picturesquely  with  the  fair  locks  and 
long  yellow  beards  of  the  red-shirted  Mujiks.  A little  to  the 
north,  after  passing  the  Obi,  the  Kirghiz  disappear,  although 
the  town  of  Tomsk  still  possesses  a mosque,  said  to  be  the 
most  northern  in  the  world. 

It  is  estimated  that  these  Tatars  do  not  exceed  90,000.  The 
majority  profess  Islamism,  whilst  a few  have  been  converted  to 
the  Orthodox  faith,  and  a smaller  proportion  still  remain 
pagans.  Only  a fraction  dwell  in  the  towns.  Besides  this 
Tatar  tribe,  some  20,000  Mongols,  called  Kalmucks,  inhabit 
the  Altai  Mountains.  In  the  north  may  still  be  found  other 
aborigines  of  a very  inferior  type,  known  as  Ostiaks.  They  are 
supposed  to  be  of  Finnish  origin,  and  do  not  exceed  40,000  in 
number,  and  are  exclusively  engaged  in  hunting  and  fishing. 
It  is  stated  that  at  one  time  they  were  fairly  civilized,  but  they 
have  been  gradually  driven  back  by  the  Russians  into  the 
Arctic  and  sterile  regions,  and  have  become  decimated  by 
drink  and  other  vices,  the  unfortunate  result  of  contact  with  a 
superior  race.  Further  north  of  the  forest -line  and  the 
Tundra  region  wander  a few  Polar  tribes  called  Samoyeds, 
who,  owing  to  the  extremely  arid  nature  of  the  soil  and  the 
rigour  of  the  climate,  have  never  come  into  contact  with 
European  civilization.  There  are  about  20,000  of  them,  and 
owing  to  the  unfavourable  social  and  climatic  conditions  under 
which  they  exist,  it  is  not  likely  that  they  will  increase.  The 
purely  Russian  population,  to  whom  the  agricultural  zone 
almost  exclusively  belongs,  forms  about  nineteen-twentieths  of 
the  3,356,000  inhabitants  of  Western  Siberia,  which  itself 
contains  three-fifths  of  the  population  of  all  Siberia. 

The  richest  section  of  the  Government  of  Tobolsk  consists 

10 


SIBERIA 


of  a narrow  band  of  land  running  between  the  marshes  of  the 
northern  regions  and  the  sterile  steppes  of  the  southern.  At 
Tomsk  this  cultivable  zone  widens  when  it  passes  the  Obi,  and 
the  character  of  the  scenery  changes  to  pleasant  hills  and  valleys, 
in  which  latter  the  earth  is  still  sufficiently  thick  and  rich  to 
entirely  cover  the  rocky  formation  below.  The  leaf-bearing 
trees  are  finer,  and  are  interspersed  with  splendid  specimens  of 
Siberian  fir  and  the  extremely  picturesque  Siberian  cedar-tree. 
Occasionally  these  trees  group  themselves  together,  and  form 
a sort  of  wood  or  plantation ; at  other  times  they  grow  singly 
along  the  roadside,  being  thus  cultivated  in  order  to  supply 
sleepers  for  the  railway  or  as  superior  fuel.  The  fields  are 
full  of  beautiful  flowers,  and  the  general  appearance  of  the 
country  is  that  of  a fine  park,  forming  a very  agreeable  contrast 
to  the  monotonous  Barabinsk  Steppe,  with  its  infrequent  and 
stunted  birches.  The  plateau  which  stretches  between  the 
two  rivers  Tom  and  Chulym,  affluents  of  the  Obi,  at  a height 
of  between  800  and  900  feet  above  the  level  of  the  plain,  is 
extremely  fertile,  the  vegetation  being  most  varied,  and  the 
whole  region  is  vastly  superior  in  point  of  picturesqueness  to 
any  hitherto  visited.  The  valley  of  the  Yenissei,  dominated 
to  the  east  by  mountains  and  traversed  by  the  magnificent 
river,  is  extremely  beautiful.  The  water  runs  rapidly,  is  re- 
markably clear,  and  in  more  than  one  place  the  majestic  stream 
widens  to  over  1,000  yards. 

Once  the  traveller  has  passed  the  Yenissei,  he  leaves  the 
tedious  plains  behind  him,  and  finds  himself  among  pleasant 
hills  and  valleys,  which  are  rapidly  becoming  highly  cultivated. 
The  post-road,  which  crosses  from  the  west  to  the  east,  from 
Tiumen,  at  the  foot  of  the  Ural,  to  Stretensk  on  the  Amur, 
sometimes  follows  the  course  of  the  rivers,  and  at  others  rises 
to  a considerable  height  above  them.  On  either  side  rise 
veritable  walls  of  gigantic  Siberian  pines,  with  red  trunks, 
sombre  verdure,  interspersed  by  magnificent  larches  of  a 
lighter  shade  of  green  and  of  more  regular  shape,  and  by 
fir-trees  and  cedars,  whose  cones  contain  those  little  seeds  which 
the  Siberians  are  so  fond  of  chewing.  On  the  banks  of  the 
more  important  rivers,  and  at  every  ten  to  twenty  miles’  distance, 
the  traveller  now  passes  numbers  of  little  towns  and  villages, 
surrounded  by  arable  land,  which  form,  however,  but  very  in- 
significant oases  in  the  midst  of  these  interminable  forests.  It  is, 
however,  along  this  post-road,  in  the  valley  of  the  Yenissei,  and 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 

on  the  banks  of  two  or  three  other  rivers,  that  almost  the  entire 
population  of  Central  Siberia  is  concentrated.  Here,  as  else- 
where, the  Russian  element  predominates ; for  out  of  the 

570.000  inhabitants  of  the  government  of  Yenissei  there  are 
not  more  than  50,000  natives,  who,  moreover,  live  principally 
in  the  forests  to  the  north. 

The  population  of  the  Government  of  Irkutsk  includes  about 

500.000  inhabitants,  of  whom  100,000  are  Buriats,  mostly 
shepherds  and  farmers.  They  were  originally  Mongols,  and 
still  practise  Buddhism,  and  live  principally  on  the  slopes  of 
the  Sayan  chain  of  mountains,  which  runs  close  to  the  Chinese 
frontier.  To  the  east  of  the  great  Lake  Baikal,  which  is  440 
miles  in  length  by  30  to  60  in  width,  and  which  by  reason  of  its 
mountainous  shores  recalls  the  lakes  of  Scotland,  is  a region 
that  contains  the  only  really  beautiful  scenery  in  Siberia.  This 
section  of  the  country  has  always  entertained  close  relations 
with  China.  Trans-Baikalia  in  former  times  supplied  the 
Emperors  at  Peking  with  their  finest  game.  The  whole  district 
of  the  Verkhne-Udinsk,  comprising  the  basin  of  the  Selenga, 
the  principal  affluent  of  the  Baikal,  is  frequently  and  not  in- 
appropriately called  Russian  Mongolia.  On  the  summit  of  the 
Ahmar  Dabam,  a chain  of  mountains  which  dominates  Lake 
Baikal,  I perceived  for  the  first  time  a fetish-tree  with  its 
branches  bedecked  with  parti-coloured  rags.  On  the  eastern 
slope  I also  discovered  a Lamasery.  The  scantily  cultivated 
plateau  to  the  north,  which  is  watered  by  the  Vitim,  a tributary 
of  the  Lena,  was,  it  appears,  not  populated  at  the  time  of  the 
arrival  of  the  Russians,  and  even  to-day  it  only  contains  a few 
villages  peopled  by  wretched  Mujiks.  This  region  before  the 
annexation  of  the  right  bank  and  of  the  lower  valley  of  the 
Amur  was  used  as  a sort  of  military  encampment.  At  the 
present  time  it  is  governed  by  a military  regime,  whose  ad- 
ministration is  concentrated  in  the  hands  of  a Governor,  in- 
variably a general  in  the  army.  Of  the  670,000  inhabitants, 
one -third  are  natives,  one- third  peasants,  or  inhabitants 
of  its  gloomy  little  towns,  and  the  other  third  consists 
of  Cossacks,  who  are  only  distinguishable  from  the  peasants 
by  wearing  a yellow  band  on  their  caps  and  trousers.  Instead 
of  paying  taxes,  they  have  to  submit  to  certain  military  obliga- 
tions. Although  they  are  Cossacks  by  name  and  by  race, 
they  possess  none  of  the  brilliant  military  qualities  which  dis- 
tinguish their  European  kinsmen.  The  two  territories  annexed 

12 


SIBERIA 


by  Russia  in  1858  at  the  expense  of  China,  the  Province  of 
the  Amur,  and  the  southern  portion  of  the  Littoral  Province — 
the  only  one  which  is  of  the  least  value — are  scarcely  inhabited, 
and  were  even  less  peopled  at  the  time  of  the  arrival  of  the 
Russians,  when  they  possessed  not  more  than  10,000  Manchus, 
and  about  as  many  natives,  engaged  in  hunting  and  fishing, 
and  belonging  to  several  declining  tribes.  The  Manchus  have 
remained  and  are  prospering;  the  other  tribes  are  gradually 
passing  aw’ay.  Some  20,000  or  30,000  Korean  and  Chinese 
emigrants  have  settled  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Vladivostok. 
The  Russian  immigration,  however,  forms  at  least  five-sixths 
of  the  112,000  inhabitants  of  the  Province  of  the  Amur,  and 
more  than  two-thirds  of  the  214,000  of  the  coast  province,  of 
whom  30,000  natives  live  in  the  Arctic  regions,  where  the 
whites  leave  them  in  peace.  The  newly-acquired  Chinese 
territory  includes  at  least  140,000  Russians  out  of  the  175,000 
inhabitants.  It  must,  however,  be  remembered  that  this 
remarkable  majority  is  mainly  due  to  the  concentration  of 
troops  which  has  taken  place  since  the  Chino-Japanese  War, 
which  so  profoundly  modified  the  political  condition  of  the 
Far  East. 

The  following  table  is  formed  from  official  sources — chiefly 
from  the  census  taken  on  January  28,  1897,  and  marks  the 
area  and  the  total  population  of  the  nine  Siberian  provinces : 


Square 

Miles. 

Total  Popu- 
lation. 

Natives  and 
other 
Asiatics. 

Area  of  Agri- 
cultural Zone, 
Square 
Miles. 

Tobolsk  M 
Tomsk  _ 

Yenissei 
Irkutsk  ^ 

Yakutsk 
Trans-Baikalia 

Amur  

Littoral  ...  \ 

Island  of  Sakhalin  / 

536,600 

328,000 

987.400 

280.800 

i,S3S-9C0 

229.800 
172,900 

741.400 

1.438,655  \ 

1.917,527/ 

567,807 

501,237 

283,954 

669,721 

112,396 

/2i4,940'l 

1 25,495/ 

180.000 

45,ooo\ 

100.000  / 

250.000 

200.000 

18.000 

70.000 

270,800 

193,400 

139,200 

104.000 

147.000 

Total 

4,812,800 

5,731,732 

863,000 

854.400 

The  southern  agricultural  region  of  Siberia,  in  contradis- 
tinction to  the  frozen  zone  to  the  north,  is  mainly  inhabited 

13 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 

by  European  settlers.  The  proportion  of  these  over  the 
native  population  is  greatest  in  the  west,  and  decreases  towards 
the  east,  where,  however,  it  still  remains  superior  by  about 
two-thirds,  so  that  we  need  not  hesitate  to  conclude  that 
out  of  the  5,000,000  people  living  on  this  long  strip  of  land, 
more  than  four  million  and  a half  are  of  European  origin. 
Nevertheless,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  indigenous 
Mongol  and  Turki  population,  which  is  immensely  superior  to 
the  poor  tribes  of  fishermen  and  hunters  who  wander  about 
the  northern  zone,  does  not  diminish,  but  continues  to  increase, 
much  less  rapidly,  however,  than  the  Russians,  who  are  con- 
stantly being  reinforced  by  emigration.  Fortunately  the 
feeling  between  these  two  distinct  elements  is  excellent ; the 
Russians,  being  of  Oriental  extraction,  do  not  hold  those  racial 
prejudices  which  are  so  marked  among  the  Anglo-Saxons. 
The  religious  question,  which  is  of  course  an  obstacle  to  any 
attempt  at  a fusion  between  the  Orthodox  and  the  Buddhist 
population,  is  also  not  very  intense  or  intricate.  The 
Russian  is  essentially  tolerant,  in  opposition  to  his  Govern- 
ment, which  is  the  reverse.  The  Orthodox  emigrants  have 
no  objection  to  a Pagoda  or  a Lamasery  being  erected  along- 
side of  their  own  churches  and  monasteries.  I remember 
seeing,  while  travelling,  from  Cheliabinsk  to  Omsk,  the  Metro- 
politan of  the  last-named  town,  who  happened  to  be  in  the 
train,  get  out  at  a certain  station  to  visit  a church  which  was 
being  built,  and  to  bestow  his  benediction  upon  a crowd  of 
Mujiks  who  had  assembled  for  the  purpose  of  receiving  it. 
Whilst  the  ceremony  was  in  progress,  a few  feet  further  on  five 
Tatar  travellers  had  stretched  their  carpets,  and,  with  their 
faces  turned  Meccawards,  were  going  through  the  elaborate 
gymnastics  connected  with  Mussulman  devotion.  The  Mujiks, 
who  were  crowding  forward  to  kiss  their  priest’s  hand,  never 
dreamt  of  disturbing  the  Mohammedan  worshippers,  but 
watched  them  quite  respectfully.  I doubt  very  much  whether 
in  any  part  of  Europe  three  centuries  ago,  when  the  populace 
was  not  more  developed  in  the  intellectual  sense  than  are  these 
poor  Mujiks,  such  a scene  of  tolerance  could  ever  have  been 
witnessed.  The  Russian  Government  accords  the  utmost  liberty 
to  its  subjects  in  Asia  in  matters  of  religion.  The  origin  of 
Russian  official  intolerance  in  Europe  is  in  the  main  purely 
political,  and  if  it  considers  Buddhists  and  Mussulmans  in 
Siberia  less  objectionable  than  Catholics  and  Protestants,  it  is 

14 


SIBERIA 


simply  because  the  followers  of  these  divergent  creeds  are  the 
representatives  of  former  and  very  dangerous  enemies,  and  are, 
moreover,  perpetually  endeavouring  to  impose  their  doctrine 
upon  anyone  with  whom  they  come  into  contact. 

The  Russian  colonization  of  Siberia  has  been  carried  out 
without  the  aid  of  any  other  European  nationality.  There  are 
only  a few  hundred  other  Europeans  settled  in  the  country, 
the  greater  number  of  whom  are  French  people.  I was  much 
amused  at  the  little  station  at  Sokur,  about  nine  leagues  from 
the  Obi,  to  find  a buffet  kept  by  a Frenchwoman,  a peasant 
who  had  married  a Bessarabian,  and  who  had  only  been  in 
Siberia  a year,  after  having,  however,  spent  several  in  Southern 
Russia.  Her  buffet  was  arranged  with  a greater  degree  of 
taste  and  comfort  than  those  in  charge  of  the  Russians,  who, 
however,  keep  everything  scrupulously  neat  and  clean.  The 
worthy  lady  had  forgotten  her  fluent  French,  but  had  not  yet 
acquired  fluent  Russian.  At  Tomsk  I fell  in  with  another 
Frenchwoman,  who  kept  a bookshop,  and  in  nearly  all  the 
towns  along  the  great  post-road  at  Irkutsk,  Blagovyeshchensk, 
Khabarofsk,  and  Vladivostok,  I found  French  shopkeepers, 
some  of  whom  had  been  thirty  years  in  the  country.  They 
seemed  to  entertain  a distinct  preference  for  photography. 

Now  that  Siberia  is  at  last  thrown  open  to  civilization, 
foreigners  will,  of  course,  become  much  more  numerous,  and 
already  many  engineers  are  to  be  found  in  various  parts  of  the 
mining  districts  ; but  for  all  this,  I do  not  think  that  at  any 
period  the  Russian  colony  will  be  greatly  influenced  thereby. 

We  may,  therefore,  conclude  that,  from  the  ethnological 
point  of  view,  as  well  as  from  the  geographical,  Siberia  is 
merely  a prolongation  of  Russian  Europe,  or  of  what  is  known 
as  Greater  Russia.  It  is  true  that  a few  heterogeneous 
elements  exist  of  the  same  sort  as  those  to  be  met  with  in 
Russia  itself : Poles  and  Germans  from  the  Baltic  provinces,  and 
the  descendants  of  exiles,  or  even  exiles  themselves ; and  thus 
it  comes  to  pass  that  in  all  the  larger  towns,  at  Tomsk, 
Krasnoyarsk  and  Irkutsk,  Catholic  and  Lutheran  churches 
abound.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  synagogues  in  nearly 
all  the  secondary  towns.  Israel  is  fully  represented  in  Siberia, 
and  the  little  town  of  Kainsk  between  the  Omsk  and  the 
Obi  is  popularly  known  as  the  Jerusalem  of  Siberia.  There 
are  also  about  100,000  Raskolniks,  followers  of  a reform 
which  took  place  in  the  liturgy  of  the  Orthodox  Church  in  the 

»S 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


seventeenth  century.  This,  however,  is,  needless  to  say,  a 
purely  Russian  contingent.  The  Raslcolniks  exist  in  every  part 
of  Siberia,  but  in  the  province  of  the  Amur  they  form  about  a 
tenth  of  the  population,  and  are  also  very  numerous  in  Trans- 
Baikalia.  They  are  mainly  the  descendants  of  people  belong- 
ing to  this  particular  sect,  who  were  originally  exiled  from 
Russia  in  the  eighteenth  century.  Their  chief  peculiarity 
consists  in  their  love  of  temperance  and  horror  of  every  sort  of 
innovation.  Nothing  would  induce  them  to  take  even  a cup  of 
coffee  or  tea.  In  our  time  the  members  of  certain  curious 
sects,  that  of  the  Eunuchs,  for  instance,  are  exiled  into  Siberia, 
and  confined  to  a village  in  the  territory  of  the  Yakutsk,  in  the 
Tundra  Zone.  According  to  the  belief  of  these  eccentric 
persons,  Napoleon  I.  was  a reincarnation  of  the  Messiah,  and 
they  believe  he  rests  in  the  sleep  of  death  on  the  shores  of 
Lake  Baikal  until  a time  when  an  angel  shall  awaken  him  and 
place  him  at  the  head  of  an  amazing  host  destined  to  establish 
the  reign  of  God  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  The  Raskolniks, 
owing  to  their  temperate  habits  and  their  industry,  are  generally 
considered  to  be  a very  valuable  element  in  the  population  of 
the  country. 


CHAPTER  III 

AGRICULTURAL  SIBERIA  AND  THE  RURAL  POPULATION 

Enormous  preponderance  of  the  rural  and  peasant  population  in  Siberia— 
Siberian  Mujiks — Their  rude  and  primitive  manner  of  life — Excellent 
quality  of  the  land,  and  backward  methods  of  cultivating  it— Mediocre 
and  irregular  manner  of  raising  cereals — The  necessity  and  difficulty 
of  improving  agricultural  operations — The  absence  of  large  and  enter- 
prising ownership  in  Siberia  a disadvantage. 

Siberia  resembles  Russia  not  only  in  the  matter  of  its  im- 
mensity, its  loneliness,  the  duration  of  its  winters,  mono- 
tonous expanse  of  its  plains  and  enormous  forest  lands,  but 
also  in  the  leading  characteristics  of  its  peasantry ; but  in 
Asia  and  Russia  these  seem  accentuated,  possibly  by  reason 
of  the  peculiarity  of  the  surroundings  among  which  they  are 
compelled  to  live.  Even  more  than  in  Russia  is  this  class  of 
the  people  essentially  rural ; the  exploitation  of  the  gold-mines 
is  the  only  other  industry  of  any  importance,  and  it  employs 
relatively  few  people  in  comparison  with  its  yield. 

In  Siberia  great  landlords  are  conspicuous  by  their  absence. 
The  only  nobles  mentioned  by  the  official  statistics  are  a few 
functionaries  whose  lands  will  be  found  on  the  other  side  of 
the  Ural,  and  the  only  rich  people  in  the  country  are  the 
merchants  residing  in  the  towns,  who  occasionally  add  to 
their  incomes,  mainly  derived  from  trade,  by  a certain  interest 
in  mining  speculations.  Some  of  these  worthy  people  build 
themselves  handsome  country  houses,  but  they  do  not  take 
much  interest  in  agriculture.  A few  concessions  of  land  were 
made  in  the  middle  of  the  century,  but  they  have  long  since 
passed  out  of  the  hands  of  their  original  owners  into  those  of 
the  Mujiks,  to  whom  they  have  been  ‘ let,’  but  these  do  not 
appear  to  care  about  their  prosperity.  All  the  rest  of  the  land 

17  c 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


belongs  either  to  the  Government  or  to  small  farmers,  who  rent 
it  from  the  Crown. 

The  Siberian  peasant  lives  exactly  as  do  his  brethren  in 
Russia,  in  villages  or  hamlets.  Isolated  houses  are  rare,  the 
agglomeration  of  dwellings  being  an  absolute  necessity  of  the 
conditions  of  that  collective  and  communal  proprietorship 
which  prevails  throughout  the  Tsar’s  dominions.  A Siberian 
village  is,  therefore,  a reproduction  of  a Russian  village.  On 
either  side  of  the  road  is  a succession  of  low,  one-story 
houses  built  of  dark  wood,  and  separated  from  each  other  by 
yards,  at  the  back  of  which  are  the  stables.  The  appearance 
of  these  dwellings  is  exceedingly  dreary,  for  they  are  invariably 
built  of  rough  wood,  blackened  by  age.  Occasionally,  however, 
some  few  planks  are  painted  a vivid  white.  The  usual  doleful 
aspect  of  these  villages  is  sometimes  enlivened,  especially  in 
the  larger  ones,  by  the  presence  of  a brick  church,  with 
cupolas  painted  a vivid  green.  In  the  hamlets  these  chapels 
are  only  outwardly  distinguished  from  the  rest  of  the  isbas  by 
an  iron  cross. 

If  anything,  the  general  appearance  of  these  Siberian 
villages  is  even  more  dreary  and  depressing  than  that  of  their 
counterparts  in  European  Russia,  where  the  houses  are  often 
gaily  painted.  Here  they  are  built  entirely  of  unhewn  wood, 
like  the  log-huts  of  the  Far  West.  Then,  the  few  domestic 
animals  to  be  seen  wandering  about  the  roadway  are  not 
reassuring,  for  the  dogs  look  like  wolves,  and  the  enormous 
black  pigs  like  wild  boars.  Nevertheless,  I am  of  opinion  that 
the  Siberian  peasant  is  better  off  than  his  Russian  brother. 
His  isbas  are  certainly  more  spacious,  although,  to  be  sure,  six, 
seven,  and  even  ten,  persons  are  usually  crowded  into  two  or 
three  tiny  rooms,  the  immense  stove  in  the  centre  of  which,  in 
winter,  is  usually  used  as  a bedstead  by  the  entire  family,  where- 
by whatever  air  otherwise  might  be  admitted  is  hermetically 
excluded.  For  all  that,  I have  never  seen  in  Siberia  any  of 
those  miserable  hovels  to  be  found  in  Russia,  but  undoubtedly 
the  manners  and  customs  of  the  Siberian  peasants  are  even 
more  primitive  than  those  of  the  Russians.  They  possess  less 
knowledge  of  hygiene  and  cleanliness,  and  are  absolutely 
ignorant  of  everything  calculated  to  render  life  in  the  least 
degree  agreeable  or  rational.  During  the  six  winter  months 
the  Siberian  keeps  his  house  rigorously  shut,  excluding  even  a 
breath  of  air ; in  summer  he  does  the  same,  for  the  double 

i8 


SIBERIA 


windows  of  the  two  or  three  very  small  sleeping  - rooms 
are  never  opened  on  any  pretext.  These  Siberian  peasants 
are,  moreover,  astonishingly  lazy  and  apathetic.  Their  only 
pleasure  in  life  consists  in  dreaming  away  the  time  whilst 
smoking  their  pipes,  and  in  drinking  vodka,  not  to  enliven 
themselves,  but  simply  to  get  dead-drunk.  Whilst  the  men 
are  at  the  public-house  the  women  stand  by  their  open  doors, 
listless  and  gossiping,  indolently  watching  their  fair-haired 
children,  who,  with  only  a red  shirt  on,  fabricate  the  time- 
honoured  dirt-pies  of  universal  childhood  in  the  mud  or  else 
roll  about  in  the  dust.  Work  is  limited  to  what  is  absolutely 
indispensable,  and  the  Siberian  peasant  is  much  happier  doing 
nothing  than  in  working  to  obtain  what  his  fellows  in  other 
countries  would  consider  the  necessaries  of  life,  but  which  he 
looks  upon  as  ludicrously  superfluous.  Every  village  possesses 
a herd  of  cows,  which  you  may  watch  in  the  early  morning 
hours  straggling  off  to  the  pastures,  driven  along  by  two  or 
three  old  men  or  urchins,  and  although  you  can  always  get 
excellent  milk,  butter  is  very  scarce,  and  cheese  unknown.  As 
to  a garden,  even  for  the  cultivation  of  necessary  vegetables,  I 
have  never  seen  one  in  the  hundred  villages  I have  visited, 
excepting,  indeed,  in  Trans-Baikalia,  where  I perceived  one  or 
two  attached  to  the  stanitsas  belonging  to  some  Cossacks.  It  is 
not  because  vegetables  will  not  grow,  but  because  the  peasants 
will  not  cultivate  them.  In  the  towns  in  the  Amur  district, 
such  as  Blagovyeshchensk,  Khabarofsk,  and  a few  others,  vege- 
tables are  to  be  obtained,  but  even  these  are  brought  over  by 
the  Chinese  from  the  opposite  bank  of  the  river. 

In  addition  to  laziness,  the  Siberian  peasant  adds  the  most 
surprising  obstinacy,  which  is  not  precisely  a bad  quality,  when, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  English,  it  serves  to  increase  their  dogged 
activity ; but  in  Siberia  it  is  simply  another  incentive  to  do 
nothing.  Once  a Siberian  peasant  has  made  up  his  mind  to 
play  dolce  far  niente,  no  power.  Divine  or  human,  will  induce 
him  to  budge.  I have  often  heard  Europeans  say  that  Siberia 
is  the  only  country  where  you  cannot  get  work  done  even  for 
money ; and  this  is  perfectly  true,  for  on  certain  holidays  it 
matters  little  what  you  may  offer,  you  will  not  get  a coachman 
to  take  you  a five-mile  drive.  The  Siberian  would  rather  lose 
money  than  earn  it  against  his  will. 

If  inertia  is  happiness,  then  the  Siberians  must  be  the 
happiest  people  on  earth.  They  disdain  progress  and  would 

iq  C 2 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


rather  die  than  better  their  condition.  Their  motto  is,  ‘ What 
sufficed  for  our  fathers  is  surely  good  enough  for  us,’  and  this  is 
the  invariable  answer  a peasant  will  give  you  if  you  venture  to 
suggest  any  sort  of  change  for  the  better  in  his  condition.  His 
favourite  texts  from  Holy  Scripture  are  those  which  flatter  his 
habit  of  intellectual  stagnation,  those  which  preach  resignation 
and  abstention,  but  certainly  not  those  which  teach  action  and 
effort.  ‘ He  who  is  contented  with  little  will  not  be  forgotten 
by  God,’  was  the  text  I once  saw  stuck  up  in  the  waiting-room 
of  one  of  the  dirtiest  stations  in  Trans-Baikalia.  It  struck  me 
as  being  particularly  appropriate,  both  to  the  place  and  the 
people.  The  prevailing  lack  of  energy  and  perseverance,  which 
has  been  noticed  by  travellers  in  every  part  of  the  Tsar’s 
Empire,  seems  to  me  to  be  one  of  the  radical  characteristics  of 
the  Russian  nature.  It  may  possibly  derive  its  origin  from  the 
influences  of  Tatar  blood,  which  was  so  largely  infused  among 
the  lower  classes  of  Russians  from  the  thirteenth  to  the  six- 
teenth century  at  the  time  of  Tatar  domination.  Then,  again, 
it  must  be  remembered  that  extreme  cold,  like  extreme  heat, 
produces  apathy,  especially  upon  the  men,  who  are  thereby  con- 
demned to  remain  for  many  months  inactive,  and  whose  minds, 
owing  to  their  excessive  ignorance,  are  a blank. 

Siberian  peasants  are  supremely  ignorant.  In  1894  the 
Government  of  Tobolsk,  the  most  progressive  of  any  in  respect 
of  education,  numbered  only  19,100  children  frequenting  the 
schools  out  of  a population  of  1,400,000  souls.  In  the  towns 
the  proportion  of  scholars  was  4'63  per  100,  but  in  the  country 
districts  it  did  not  rise  to  i'o5.  One  must  not,  however,  be 
too  severe  on  the  Siberians  for  showing  so  poor  an  educational 
result,  for  we  must  not  forget  the  enormous  distance  between 
village  and  village,  and  the  difficulties  of  obtaining  school- 
masters, owing  mainly  to  the  excessive  ignorance  in  which  the 
lower  orders  of  Russians  are  plunged.  Notwithstanding  the 
very  considerable  progress  which  has  been  made  in  this  direc- 
tion in  the  last  few  years,  there  is  probably  no  country  in  the 
world  where  reading  and  writing  would  be  of  greater  advantage, 
for  during  at  least  one  half  of  the  year  the  Siberian  has 
literally  nothing  to  do  but  to  think,  or,  better,  to  dream,  his 
life  away. 

Serfdom  has  never  existed  in  Siberia,  which  accounts  for  the 
Mujiks  having  a much  more  independent  air  than  their  brethren 
in  European  Russia.  They  have,  however,  in  common  with 

20 


SIBERIA 


these  latter,  that  peculiar  sort  of  charity  which  has  been  well 
called  the  ‘ pity  of  the  Slav.’  It  is,  however,  not  an  active 
virtue,  but  a sort  of  dreamy  pitifulness  which  induces  these 
poor  people  to  help  each  other,  but  does  not  prevent  them 
from  being  exceedingly  suspicious  of  strangers.  They  will, 
however,  invariably  leave  on  the  sill  outside  their  windows  a 
hunk  of  bread  or  a jug  of  milk  for  the  benefit  of  some  escaped 
convict  or  some  wretched  outcast.  Unfortunately,  however, 
the  extreme  ignorance  and  the  innate  laziness  of  these  people 
prevent  their  extracting  from  the  soil  much  that,  at  a very 
small  cost  of  labour,  would  greatly  increase  both  their  wealth 
and  their  comfort. 

The  soil  of  Siberia  is  exceedingly  rich.  The  famous 
tchernozium,  or  black  earth  of  Southern  Russia,  covers  a great 
part  of  the  Meridional  Zone  of  the  provinces  of  Tobolsk  and 
Tomsk.  The  upper  valleys  of  the  Obi  and  the  Yenissei, 
sheltered  from  the  north  winds,  enjoy  a milder  climate  than 
the  plains,  and  are  excellent  for  the  growth  of  all  sorts  of 
cereals.  On  the  borders  of  the  Angara,  the  great  tributary  of 
Lake  Baikal  and  on  that  of  the  Lower  Amur,  and  its  tributary 
rivers  and  its  affluents,  which  are  marshy,  there  are  enormous 
tracts  of  extremely  fertile  land,  but  the  methods  of  cultivation 
are  of  the  most  primitive.  Then,  again,  the  vast  majority  of 
the  rural  population  obstinately  refuses  to  work  in  the  fields. 
All  along  the  great  postal  highway,  which  stretches  from  the 
Ural  to  the  Amur,  and  beyond  to  Kiakhta,  the  manner  in  which 
the  peasants  earn  their  living  is  considerably  modified.  They 
exist  by  trafficking  along  this  main  road,  along  which  pass 
manufactured  goods  imported  from  Europe,  which  are  forwarded 
to  Central  Siberia,  the  great  caravans  of  the  tea-merchants,  the 
gangs  of  exiles,  and  lastly  the  ordinary  travellers.  As  this 
road  is  the  only  one  which  goes  from  west  to  east,  it  is  very 
animated.  Even  in  summer,  when  the  traffic  is  not  so  active — 
the  tea  caravans  only  pass  in  winter — I have  rarely  seen  fewer 
than  loo  transports  of  one  sort  or  another  per  day.  Although 
every  postmaster  is  obliged  to  keep  no  fewer  than  forty  horses, 
and  each  carriage  rarely  requires  more  than  three,  occasionally 
it  is  impossible  to  secure  a conveyance,  and  one  is  obliged  to 
ask  the  peasants  for  assistance,  which  they  are  very  ready  to 
afford,  making  you  pay  from  three  to  four  roubles  (six  to  eight 
shillings)  for  a relay  of  twenty-five  versts  (sixteen  miles),  a sum 
which,  if  they  see  that  they  have  to  deal  either  with  somebody 

21 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


who  is  in  a great  hurry,  or  with  a wealthy  traveller,  they  per- 
sistently increase  in  the  most  barefaced  manner.  In  winter 
the  transport  of  tea  also  enables  them  to  make  considerable 
sums  of  money. 

Thus  it  is  that  the  country  folk  in  these  latitudes  neglect 
agriculture,  considering  it  merely  as  an  accessory.  In  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  villages  you  will  find  a few  fields  and 
pastures,  where  the  cows,  horses,  and  sometimes  a few  black 
sheep,  are  sent  out  to  graze  under  the  care  of  two  or  three  boys 
or  old  men,  or  sometimes  without  any  shepherd  at  all.  A 
wooden  barrier  prevents  their  escaping  into  the  neighbouring 
forest. 

The  number  of  horses  in  Siberia  is  very  great.  In  the 
government  of  Tomsk  in  1894  there  were  1,360,000  horses  to 
a population  of  only  1,700,000,  that  is  to  say,  80  horses  per 
100  inhabitants.  In  the  government  of  the  Yenissei  the 
proportion  is  over  90  per  100  inhabitants,  and  the  same 
proportion  prevails  in  the  government  of  Irkutsk.  Almost  the 
only  other  country  where  there  are  almost  as  many  horses  as 
men  is,  besides  Russian  Central  Asia,  the  Argentine  Republic, 
where  there  are  112  per  too  inhabitants.  In  the  United 
States  there  are  but  22,  and  in  France  only  7.  The  pro- 
portion of  horned  cattle  is  also  very  considerable,  being  about 
60  per  100  inhabitants,  rising  in  Eastern  Siberia,  in  Tobolsk 
and  Tomsk,  to  80,  whereas  in  the  Yenissei  and  Irkutsk  districts 
there  are  about  3 beasts  per  family.  The  greater  part  of  these 
are  cows.  Bullocks  are  very  scarce,  not  being  employed  either 
for  food  or  burden.  It  is  only  along  the  Kirghiz  Steppes,  in 
the  country  traversed  by  the  Trans-Siberian  railway  between 
the  Urals  and  Omsk,  and  the  region  immediately  below  this 
line,  that  milk  is  used.  The  rain  falls  in  this  region  very 
slightly,  and  the  land  is  not  cultivable,  but  purely  arable,  and 
as  the  Kirghiz  are  extremely  capable  herdsmen,  the  results  are 
very  satisfactory,  and  they  export  their  cattle  largely  into 
Russian  Europe,  and  even  beyond.  I remember  coming 
across  a train  full  of  bullocks  which  were  being  conveyed  to 
St.  Petersburg,  and  I know  of  at  least  one  large  house  in 
Moscow  which  receives  weekly  from  the  little  town  of  Kurgan, 
situated  on  the  railway  line,  many  thousands  of  pounds  of 
butter,  a great  part  of  which  is  exported  thence  to  Hamburg. 

If  one  wishes  to  become  acquainted  with  the  real  Siberian 
farmers,  one  must  leave  aside  the  highroads  and  plunge 

22 


SIBERIA 


into  the  country.  True,  the  villages  become  much  less 
numerous,  but  then  they  are  surrounded  by  more  extensive 
fields.  In  those  districts  which  were  first  colonized  in  the 
Government  of  Tobolsk  some  rather  thickly-peopled  places 
are  occasionally  to  be  found,  especially  in  the  northern  steppe 
between  55°  and  58°  latitude.  In  the  Government  of  Tomsk 
a more  inhabited  region  will  likewise  be  met  with  to  the  south 
of  the  zone  of  the  immense  but  well-wooded  marshlands ; but 
in  this  province,  as  in  that  of  the  Yenissei,  the  southern 
portion,  instead  of  being  covered  by  sterile  steppes,  contains 
the  magnificently  wooded  valleys  of  the  upper  Obi,  the 
Yenissei,  and  their  affluents,  which  very  naturally  attract  the 
greater  number  of  Russian  emigrants. 

The  agricultural  resources  in  the  districts  of  Barnaul,  Biisk, 
Minusinck  and  Kansk,  are  extremely  rich,  and,  besides  ex- 
cellent land,  splendid  water,  and  a relatively  mild  and  agreeable 
climate,  there  are  a variety  of  minerals.  More  to  the  east, 
if  we  wish  to  avoid  the  ever-silent  desert,  or  the  iaiga,  we 
must,  on  leaving  the  highroad,  enter  some  of  the  valleys  at  the 
foot  of  the  mountains  on  the  Chinese  frontier,  on  the  borders 
of  which  the  whole  population  is  at  present  concentrated. 
The  aspect  of  this  region,  however,  differs  very  little  from  that 
crossed  by  the  post  - road  between  Irkutsk  to  the  great 
prison  of  Alexandrof,  where  we  behold  fine  wheat-fields  and 
herds  of  cattle  wherever  there  is  an  opening  in  the  thick  but 
marshy  woodlands.  Excepting  for  the  extent  of  the  cultivated 
lands  which  surround  them,  the  appearance  of  the  villages, 
however,  does  not  change  in  the  least.  There  is  never  a 
vestige  of  a garden  or  of  any  sort  of  verdure  near  the  houses, 
unless,  indeed,  it  be  a few  flowers  growing  in  pots,  which  are 
never  arranged  on  the  ledge  outside  the  window,  but  in  the 
interior,  and  form,  together  with  a few  ikons  and  the  portraits 
of  their  Imperial  Majesties,  the  only  attempt  at  ornamentation 
indulged  in  by  the  inhabitants  of  these  essentially  comfortless 
and  inartistic  dwellings. 

The  only  crops  of  the  least  value  in  Siberia  are  those  of 
the  various  cereals,  of  which  about  150,000,000  bushels  are 
harvested,  mostly  in  the  western  part  of  the  country,  which  is 
not  only  the  most  thickly  populated,  but  also  the  freest  of 
forests. 

The  rest  of  Siberia,  that  is  to  say,  the  provinces  watered  by 
the  Amur  and  the  territory  of  the  Irkutsk,  which  are  very  thinly 

23 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


peopled,  does  not  produce* a total  of  more  than  5,500,000 
bushels.  Wheat,  generally  sown  in  spring,  and  oats  form 
each  about  30  per  cent,  of  the  total  cereal  product  of  Siberia. 
The  balance  is  made  up  of  rye,  barley  and  buckwheat.  The 
arable  land  has  to  undergo,  especially  when  first  reclaimed 
from  the  steppe,  the  usual  process  of  preparation,  manuring, 
etc.  The  Siberian  peasants  have  not  acquired  even  the  most 
rudimentary  knowledge  of  agricultural  science,  and,  conse- 
quently, often  have  to  abandon  their  farms.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  certain  favourable  regions,  in  the  Governments  of 
Tobolsk  and  Tomsk,  where  the  earth  is  exceptionally  rich,  the 
pastures  have  gone  on  fairly  well  for  over  a hundred  years 
without  any  sensible  diminution  in  the  excellence  of  their  grazing 
properties.  However,  land  is  so  abundant  in  Siberia  that  often 
the  peasants,  when  they  find  after  they  have  reclaimed  it  that 
its  productive  qualities  decrease,  rather  than  be  bothered  with 
a repetition  of  the  processes  of  manuring,  etc.,  pack  up  their 
traps  and  migrate  elsewhere,  literally,  to  ‘ fresh  woods  and 
pastures  new,’  where  probably  the  foot  of  man  has  never  trod. 

In  Siberia,  as  stated  already,  great  landowners  are  non- 
existent. The  soil  is,  therefore,  exclusively  in  the  hands  of  the 
peasants,  but  up  to  the  present  the  mir  collective  communal 
propertyship,  as  is  found  throughout  Russia,  is  quite  exceptional, 
and  then  only  in  the  more  sparsely  peopled  parts  of  the  west. 
Since  1896,  however,  the  Government  has  decided  to  introduce, 
if  not  practically,  at  least  theoretically,  the  mir  principle  as 
it  exists  in  European  Russia.  Nevertheless,  in  Siberia  the 
commune  is  not  supposed  to  possess  property,  but  simply  to 
hold  it  on  the  principle  of  usufruct,  the  whole  land  belonging 
to  the  Crown.  In  those  parts  of  the  country  which  are  nearly 
uninhabited  the  zditnka  system  still  holds  good,  whereby  a 
peasant,  although  he  may  be  a resident  in  a village,  is  allowed 
to  build  himself  a hut  on  the  steppe  or  in  the  forest  where  he 
passes  the  summer,  and  where  he  can  cultivate  and  even 
enclose  one  or  two  large  fields  which  are  supposed  to  belong 
to  him,  and  which  he  can  sell  or  give  away  as  he  pleases,  and 
which,  in  point  of  fact,  he  owns  by  right  of  being  the  first 
occupant ; but  this  system  is  only  provisional.  With  the 
increase  of  population  it  gives  place  to  another,  whereby  the 
peasant  is  not  considered  an  absolute  proprietor,  but  only  for 
so  long  as  he  chooses  to  cultivate  his  land  properly.  From 
the  moment  he  ceases  to  comply  with  this  condition  another 

24 


SIBERIA 


man  can  take  his  land.  Everybody  is  allowed  to  cut  hay  in 
the  prairies  where  he  likes,  and  the  pastures  and  woods  are 
common  property.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  forbidden  to 
enclose  any  forest  or  pasture-land. 

The  climate  of  Siberia  is  naturally  opposed  to  the  cultivation 
of  cereals,  which  have  to  struggle  against  droughts,  autumnal 
fogs,  and  late  and  early  frosts.  During  the  last  ten  years  some 
very  interesting  meteorological  observations  have  been  made  at 
Irkutsk,  whereby  it  has  been  discovered  that  July  is  the  only 
month  in  which  it  never  freezes.  Then,  again,  in  the  government 
of  Tobolsk,  and  to  the  west  of  that  of  Tomsk,  in  addition  to  these 
climatic  drawbacks,  the  crops  are  often  devastated  by  myriads 
of  kobylkas,  a sort  of  locust  or  grasshopper  which  comes  from 
the  Kirghiz  Steppes.  Under  these  circumstances,  agriculture 
in  Siberia  may  well  be  said  to  be  an  even  more  arduous  way 
of  earning  a livelihood  than  it  is  in  Russia  proper.  It  not 
unfrequently  happens  that  the  crops  fail  utterly,  and  during 
the  last  ten  years  it  has  been  noticed  that  these  disasters  are 
mainly  due  to  increasing  impoverishment  of  the  soil.  The 
irregular  condition  of  the  crops  is  all  the  more  disastrous  in 
Siberia  because  of  the  lack  of  means  of  communication 
which  impedes  the  easy  transport  of  corn  from  one  district  to 
another,  and  results  in  enormous  fluctuations  in  prices,  that 
often  spell  ruin  to  the  unfortunate  peasants.  The  introduction 
of  the  railway  to  Irkutsk  occasioned  a notable  reduction  in  the 
price  of  bread  in  Eastern  Siberia,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
principal  line,  unfortunately,  transports  agricultural  products 
from  Siberia  to  the  region  of  the.  Volga. 

But  a matter  which  is  even  of  greater  importance  than  that 
of  intercommunication  are  the  extremely  antiquated  methods  of 
cultivation  which  the  peasants  insist  upon  retaining.  In  the  first 
place,  their  notions  of  preparing  the  reclaimed  soil  for  culture 
are  absolutely  barbarous.  All  they  do  is  to  scratch  up  the 
immediate  surface  of  the  earth  with  a sort  of  plough  which 
dates  from  the  Iron  Age,  and  then  sow  their  crop.  When  the 
field  is  exhausted,  which,  not  having  been  properly  manured, 
it  very  soon  is,  it  is  abandoned  for  a period  of  years  until  it 
recovers  some  of  its  reproductive  qualities.  With  improved  agri- 
cultural implements  the  earth  could  be  more  deeply  ploughed, 
and  at  a very  little  distance  beneath  the  surface  it  is  almost  in- 
variably extremely  rich.  The  question  is  how  to  induce  the 
peasants  to  change  methods  which  have  been  handed  down  to 

25 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


them  from  their  ancestors  through  the  ages.  It  is  of  course 
much  to  be  regretted  that  in  Siberia  there  exists  no  great  land- 
owners  wealthy  enough  to  introduce  modern  improvements,  and 
thus  teach  their  humbler  neighbours  the  value  of  progress  by 
practical  illustration ; but  until  means  of  communication  are 
facilitated  and  improved  it  will  be  difficult  to  induce  men  of 
wealth  and  education  to  settle  in  a country  which,  however 
naturally  rich  it  may  be,  is,  to  say  the  best  of  it,  exceptionally 
unattractive.  Even  in  Russia,  where  so  many  noblemen,  owing 
to  the  great  losses  which  they  sustained  at  the  time  of  the  eman- 
cipation of  the  serfs,  have  abandoned  their  lands  to  the  peasants, 
and  have  retired  to  the  larger  towns,  there  are  yet  to  be  found 
men  who  have  had  the  courage  to  face  reverses,  and  who  have 
taken  their  estates  in  hand  on  scientific  principles,  introducing 
the  latest  improvements  in  agricultural  implements,  and  thereby 
have  influenced  for  the  better  the  peasantry  by  even  inducing 
some  of  them  to  abandon  their  primeval  methods  of  agri- 
culture. This  desirable  state  of  affairs,  however,  cannot  exist  in 
Siberia,  at  least  for  the  present.  Then,  again,  there  is  another 
advantage  which  would  accrue  from  the  presence  of  rich  land- 
owners  in  Siberia,  namely,  contact  with  persons  of  superior 
education  and  culture,  which  in  the  end  would  doubtless  affect 
the  peasantry  for  the  better.  In  Russia  the  peasantry  form  a 
compact  body  which,  by  reason  of  its  singular  position  in  the 
social  sphere,  is  absolutely  unable  to  receive  or  absorb  any 
influences  from  the  more  educated  classes.  This  is  a state  of 
affairs  which  it  is  highly  desirable  should  cease  in  the  Asiatic 
colonies,  where  at  present  it  is  even  more  strongly  marked 
than  in  Russia  itself.  The  problem  of  the  future  of  Siberia  is 
the  possibility  and  feasibility  of  inducing  important  land-owners 
to  settle  in  the  country. 


20 


CHAPTER  IV 


MINERAL  RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 

Importance  of  the  Siberian  mines — The  gold  mines — Insufficiency  of 
organization  principally  due  to  unfavourable  climatic  influences — Rail- 
way extension  would  bring  about  an  increase  in  the  value  of  the  mining 
industries — Silver,  copper,  and  iron  mines. 

However  productive  Siberia  may  eventually  become,  it  can 
never  solely  depend  for  its  prosperity  upon  its  agricultural 
resources.  Happily,  the  subsoil  is  richer  than  the  upper  crust, 
on  account  of  the  great  abundance  of  ore  of  various  kinds 
which  it  conceals.  The  gold  and  silver  mines,  however,  alone, 
up  to  the  present,  have  been  worked  to  any  extent,  although  a 
few  of  the  iron  mines  have  been  slightly  exploited.  Even  in 
the  case  of  gold,  however,  only  the  alluvial  mines  have  been 
touched  in  those  valleys  where  gold  exists,  and  nowhere  have 
the  rock  veins  been  opened.  More  can  hardly  be  expected 
in  a country  which  is  nearly  destitute  of  the  proper  means 
of  transport ; hence  the  extreme  difficulty  of  conveying  the 
necessarily  heavy  and  elaborate  machinery  required  for 
the  extraction  of  the  gold  from  the  rock.  I'hen,  again, 
the  rock  ore  is  only  to  be  found  at  great  distances  from 
inhabited  centres  in  unexplored  forests  and  mountainous 
regions.  The  diggings,  on  the  other  hand,  are  much  easier, 
demanding  no  other  implements  than  a sieve  and  a spade. 
The  siftings  have  been  exploited  in  great  numbers  from  end  to 
end  of  Siberia,  their  takings  proving,  since  1895,  equal  to  two- 
thirds  of  the  gold  product  of  the  whole  of  the  Russian  Empire, 
the  fourth  largest  gold-centre  in  the  world,  coming  immediately 
after  the  United  States,  Australia,  and  the  Transvaal.  The 
amount  of  gold  abstracted  from  the  Siberian  mines  since  1895 
amounts  to  not  less  than  5, 000,000,  and  this  figure,  high  as 

27 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


it  is,  is,  in  all  probability,  much  under  the  mark,  the  miners 
very  often  retaining  a good  deal  of  their  findings  for  themselves. 
The  Government  is  the  only  buyer  of  Siberian  gold.  It  has 
the  right  to  claim  on  purchasing  the  gold  from  the  miners 
between  15  and  20  per  cent,  of  the  ore.  This  system  of  taxa- 
tion is  extremely  pernicious,  since  it  tempts  the  miners,  as 
already  stated,  to  conceal  the  real  amount  of  their  takings. 
An  increase  in  the  surface  tax  would  compensate  for  the  sup- 
pression of  the  official  claim  upon  the  net  product,  and  would 
put  an  end  to  a great  deal  of  fraud.  I have  been  assured  that 
a reform  in  this  sense  may  soon  be  expected.  The  enforced 
obligation  of  selling  to  the  State  becomes,  in  the  long-run,  ex- 
ceedingly irksome  to  concessionaires,  because  it  forces  them  to 
send  their  gold  to  a great  distance,  to  the  laboratories  at  Tomsk 
and  Irkutsk,  where  the  official  agents  analyze  it  to  determine 
its  value,  whereas,  of  course,  it  would  be  much  simpler  to  send 
it  direct  to  Europe,  and  there  sell  it  to  speculators  who  would 
promptly  pay  the  price  demanded.  Another  drawback  in  the 
present  system  is  that  the  miners  have  often  to  wait  a long 
time  for  ready  cash,  which  is  absolutely  necessary  to  them  in 
their  business.  Sometimes  the  Government  keeps  them  wait- 
ing until  their  gold  has  reached  St.  Petersburg,  and  they  are 
ultimately  obliged  to  discount  it  according  to  the  very  high 
tariff  rates  prevailing  in  Siberia.  The  transport  of  the  metal  to 
Europe  by  the  State  is  as  expensive  as  it  is  troublesome,  since 
it  has  to  be  conveyed  to  Moscow  and  St.  Petersburg  in  charge 
of  a military  escort.  I have  on  several  occasions  seen  between 
the  Yenissei  and  Lake  Baikal  carts  bringing  gold  from  the 
mines,  escorted  by  three  or  four  soldiers  ready  to  fire  on  the 
least  signs  of  possible  attack.  Another  drawback  to  the 
Siberian  mining  industries  are  the  primitive  implements  used 
in  abstracting  the  ore  from  the  soil,  which,  as  M.  Levat,  a dis- 
tinguished engineer,  very  truly  observed  to  me,  were  of  a sort 
that  apparently  dated  from  the  days  of  Homer.  Under  these 
circumstances,  it  is  the  custom  in  Siberia  to  work  the  surface 
of  the  mine  only,  and  after  enough  ore  has  been  extracted 
from  it,  to  abandon  the  place  entirely. 

Owing  to  the  geological  formation  of  the  country,  the  more 
important  Siberian  mines  will  not  be  found,  as  in  California, 
on  the  mountain  slopes,  but  at  depths  covered  by  marshlands. 
Their  exploitation,  therefore,  is  much  more  costly,  as  it  is 
necessary  before  commencing  operations  to  cart  away  an 

a8 


SIBERIA 


immense  quantity  of  the  upper  surface  of  the  earth.  Hence  it 
happens  that  if  a mine  is  disturbed  at  the  surface,  and  then 
abandoned  by  the  miners,  it  is,  so  to  speak,  spoilt,  as  any 
attempt  to  work  it  again  in  all  probability  will  result  in  dis- 
appointment. For  this  reason,  many  excellent  mines  in  the 
basin  of  the  Obi  and  of  the  Yenissei  have  been  already  ex- 
hausted, and  the  centre  of  the  mining  industry  in  these  regions 
has  been  transferred  to  the  banks  of  the  Amur  and  the  Lena, 
and  this  notwithstanding  the  many  difficulties  the  miners  have 
to  face,  as  the  soil  hereabouts  is  invariably  frozen  for  about 
twenty  yards  in  depth,  and  work  can  only  be  pursued  for  about 
120  consecutive  days  in  the  year.  The  miners’  salaries,  too, 
are  exceedingly  high.  In  the  diggings  at  Olekma,  an  affluent 
of  the  Lena,  wages  are  3s.  4d.  per  diem,  that  is  to  say,  double 
what  they  are  on  the  Yenissei,  and  eight  times  as  much  as  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Senipalatinsk,  where  the  Kirghiz  work- 
men receive  only  fivepence.  Notable  progress,  however,  has 
been  made  in  these  regions  during  the  last  few  years,  as  the 
mines  are  gradually  leaving  the  hands  of  adventurers  and  small 
associations,  to  be  concentrated  in  those  of  important  com- 
panies, financed  by  the  richer  Siberian  merchants,  and  even  by 
large  Russian  firms.  The  great  mining  company  of  Olekma 
extracted  in  1880  ;,^i,ooo,ooo  worth  of  gold,  and  maintained 
its  reputation  at  ^680,000  in  1896,  proving  this  mine  to  be 
one  of  the  richest  in  the  world.  With  the  introduction  of 
proper  means  of  transport,  and,  above  all,  a liberal  reform  in 
the  legislation,  doubtless  the  Siberian  mines  would  become 
infinitely  more  valuable  than  they  are  at  present. 

Already  European  capitalists  are  paying  attention  to  Asiatic 
Russia,  and  one  or  two  important  groups  of  French  mining 
engineers  during  the  past  three  years  have  been  inspecting 
those  parts  of  the  country  which  are  said  to  be  richest  in  ore. 
I was  never  more  surprised  than  to  find  on  board  a boat  on 
the  Amur  two  English  engineers,  whose  acquaintance  I had 
made  in  December,  1895,  in  the  far-away  goldfields  of  the 
Transvaal.  All  that  the  mines  of  Siberia  need  to  become  of 
enormous  value  are  sufficient  capital  and  up-to-date  methods 
of  working  them.  The  silver  mines  of  Nertchinsk,  which  in 
old  times  had  an  unenviable  reputation  as  the  site  of  the  most 
terrible  Siberian  penal  settlement,  are  now  of  little  value.  On 
the  other  hand,  copper,  iron,  and  coal  beds  are  distributed  in 
great  abundance  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  and  seem  to 

ay 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


constitute  its  principal  and  most  permanent  source  of  wealth. 
The  copper  mines  have  not  been  exploited  at  all,  but  are 
known  to  exist  in  the  Upper  Yenissei,  in  the  districts  of  the 
Minusinsk,  celebrated  throughout  Siberia  for  its  agricultural 
prosperity  ; others  may  be  discovered  more  to  the  west,  on  the 
Irtysh.  Iron  is  found  in  great  quantity  in  the  western  regions, 
in  the  Altai  Mountains,  on  the  borders  of  the  Yenissei,  and  in 
the  valley  of  the  Angara,  and  to  the  east  in  Trans-Baikalia, 
where  its  iron  mines  have  been  fairly  well  exploited,  but  hitherto 
not  on  any  considerable  scale.  Coal  will  certainly  be  found  in 
considerable  abundance  in  the  western  plains,  and  in  the  last 
few  years  a vast  coal  area  has  been  found,  beginning  about 
150  miles  south  of  the  Trans-Siberian  line  near  the  town  of 
Kuznetsk,  and  extending  to  the  Upper  Obi.  In  1887  a new 
and  still  larger  field  was  discovered  at  about  80  miles  east  of 
Tomsk,  and,  moreover,  close  to  the  railway  line.  At  the  ex- 
tremity of  Siberia,  near  Vladivostok,  and,  consequently,  close 
to  the  sea,  other  coal-beds  have  been  opened  of  late. 

Siberian  industries  are  at  present  very  limited,  and  consist  of 
a few  unimportant  distilleries,  breweries,  brick-kilns,  match 
manufactories,  etc.  It  is  therefore  evident  that  for  some  long 
time  to  come  the  inhabitants  will  be  compelled  to  devote  their 
attention  and  energies  to  the  development  of  the  natural  pro- 
ducts of  the  soil.  All  new  countries  are  forced  to  do  this  in 
the  first  stages  of  their  civilization,  and  since  the  United  States, 
New  Zealand,  and  Australia  failed  in  manufactures  in  their 
earlier  days,  Siberia  may  surely  content  herself  by  following  in 
their  wake. 


30 


CHAPTER  V 


SIBERIAN  COMMERCE  AND  THE  TRANSPORT  OF  TEA 

Special  character  of  trade  in  Siberia — Importance  of  the  tea  transport — ■ 
Kiakhta — The  annual  arrival  of  tea  at  the  Irkutsk  Customs-house — 
Road  followed  by  the  tea  caravan — Dilatory  and  expensive  methods 
of  transport — Comparison  between  the  land  road  via  Kiakhta  and  the 
sea  route  via  Odessa — Other  articles  of  commerce,  exportation  of 
cereals,  etc. 

Commerce  is  much  more  important  in  Siberia  than  either 
agriculture  or  manufacture,  and  forms  the  basis  of  all  the 
great  fortunes  that  have  been  made  in  the  country.  Siberian 
commerce  is  mainly  concerned  with  transport,  and  if  we 
except  the  traffic  in  gold  by  the  Government,  the  only  other 
objects  of  export  are  cereals  and  furs.  The  importation, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  very  limited,  consisting  merely  of  manu- 
factured articles  necessary  for  the  material  comfort  of  a very 
scanty  and  primitive  population,  whose  wants  are  correspond- 
ingly few.  The  commerce  of  the  country  would  be  infini- 
tesimal were  it  not  that  nearly  all  the  tea  consumed  in  Russia 
passes  through  Siberia.*  Tea  in  Russia  occupies  even  a more 
important  position  than  it  does  in  England.  The  average 
Russian  takes  between  a dozen  and  fifteen  cups  per  day,  and 
he  will  not  travel  without  his  tea,  tea-pot,  and  his  sugar,  and 
the  satnovar,  a sort  of  glorified  kettle,  is  never  absent  from 
every  table  in  Russia,  and  is  always  full  of  hot  water  ready  to 
moisten  the  leaves  of  the  plant  that  comforts  but  does  not 
intoxicate.  The  Russians  make  their  infusion  very  weak, 
pouring  the  boiling  water  a great  many  times  over  the  same 
leaves.  The  peasantry,  unlike  the  English  of  the  lower  classes, 
who  like  their  tea  very  strong,  use  the  same  leaves  over  and 

* The  import  of  Ceylon  tea  into  Russia  is  already  large,  and  is  in- 
creasing rapidly. — H.  N. 


31 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


over  again  until  the  decoction  ends  by  being  only  straw-coloured 
water.  This  explains  the  fact  that  whilst  the  Russians  drink 
three  times  as  much  tea  as  the  English,  the  quantity  of  it 
imported  into  Russia  is  at  least  two-thirds  less  than  that  which 
China  and  India  send  annually  to  Great  Britain. 

It  was  by  the  overland  route  that  the  Russians  first  came  in 
contact  with  the  Chinese  somewhere  towards  the  end  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  and  their  commerce  with  the  Celestial 
Empire  continued  until  the  middle  of  the  present  century  ex- 
clusively overland.  Almost  all  the  tea  which  enters  Russia  has 
to  pass  through  the  town  of  Kiakhta,  about  i8o  miles  south- 
east of  Irkutsk  as  the  crow  flies,  but  430  miles  by  the  postal- 
road,  which  is  only  used  during  two  short  periods  of  the  year, 
the  first  in  December  and  the  second  in  spring,  when,  owing 
to  the  quantity  of  ice  on  Lake  Baikalia,  navigation  is  impos- 
sible. During  the  rest  of  the  year  the  tea  is  transported  across 
the  lake,  in  winter  on  sledges,  and  in  summer  by  steamers, 
whereby  not  less  than  93  miles  are  gained.  Occasionally, 
as,  for  instance,  on  the  banks  of  the  Solenga,  the  road  rises  to 
about  4,000  feet  above  the  level  of  Lake  Baikalia.  Here  the 
scenery  becomes  extremely  fine,  and  the  traveller  obtains 
between  the  branches  of  the  magnificent  trees  glimpses  of  the 
beautiful  lake  far  below,  forming  a very  welcome  change  to  the 
monotony  of  the  plain  in  which  the  caravans  spend  the  greater 
part  of  their  journey.  Kiakhta  consists  of  three  parts : the 
town  of  Troitskosavsk,  about  two  miles  north  of  the  Russo- 
Chinese  Frontier;  the  town  of  Kiakhta  proper,  which  is 
on  the  immediate  frontier,  but  on  Russian  territory ; and  sepa- 
rated from  the  last  only  by  a strip  of  neutral  ground  a hundred 
yards  wide  is  the  Chinese  town  of  Maimatchin.  Troitskosavsk 
is  the  most  important  of  the  three,  and  offers  an  exceedingly 
agreeable  aspect  to  the  traveller  who  has  been  obliged  to  climb 
up  the  reverse  side  of  the  steep  and  barren  hill  overlooking  the 
town.  The  houses  lining  the  road  are  of  wood,  comfortable, 
and  painted  a light  colour.  Even  the  lateral  streets  are  well 
kept,  and  it  is,  taking  it  for  all  in  all,  the  cleanest  town  I have 
seen  in  all  Siberia.  One  soon  realizes  that  the  tea  trade 
supplies  the  whole  population  with  ample  means  of  earning  a 
livelihood,  and  also  that  the  wealthy  take  an  interest  in  their 
town.  On  one  side  of  the  road,  for  instance,  is  the  communal 
school,  built  out  of  funds  originally  intended  for  the  erection 
of  barracks,  but,  soldiers  not  being  required,  the  place  was 

33 


SIBERIA 


converted  into  a school,  munificently  supported  by  the  merchants 
of  the  city.  The  children  pay  a small  entrance  fee.  Opposite 
stands  another  very  large  educational  establishment,  also  sup- 
ported by  voluntary  contributions. 

The  dwellings  of  the  principal  tea  merchants  are  situated  at 
Troitskosavsk,  whose  population  numbers  quite  7,000  souls  ; 
but  it  is  at  Kiakhta,*  on  the  frontier,  that  the  tea-leaves  are 
manipulated.  The  two  towns  are  linked  by  an  excellent  road, 
which  passes  between  desolate-looking  sand-hills,  sparsely 
covered  with  wretched  fir-trees.  The  blue  outline  of  the 
mountains  of  Mongolia  closes  in  the  horizon  to  the  south.  The 
houses  of  the  wealthier  inhabitants  are  painted  white,  as  is  the 
church,  the  interior  of  which  is  extremely  rich  with  massive 
silver  candelabras  and  a gorgeous  iconostase.  Beyond  a group 
of  isbas,  where  the  workmen  dwell,  and  half  hidden  by  the 
cupolas  of  the  church,  stands  the  vast  but  very  low  one-storied 
building  of  the  Tea  Warehouse.  Such  is  Kiakhta,  through 
which  passes  annually  into  the  Russian  Empire  from  40,000,000 
to  60,000,000  pounds  of  tea,  costing,  before  the  Custom  duties 
are  paid,  between  ^1,500,000  to  ;^2,ooo,ooo.  The  following 
are  the  figures  obtained  from  the  tea  registers  during  the  last 
five  years,  kindly  supplied  to  me  by  the  authorities  at  Kiakhta. 


Year. 

Weight  of  Tea. 

Value  of  Tea. 

1892 

42,596,500  lbs. 

;^I,672,I43 

1893 

43,123,250  „ 

1.659,134 

1894 

51,086,900  „ 

1,932.318 

1895 

52,439,500  „ 

2,043,086 

1896 

55,369,200  „ 

2,128,402 

The  tea  begins  to  pour  into  Kiakhta  in  winter  from  the 
month  of  November  to  February.  In  December  it  is  not  at 
all  an  uncommon  thing  to  see  as  many  as  5,000  boxes  delivered 

• All  that  part  of  Siberia  situated  east  of  Baikalia  forms  a sort  of  neutral 
ground  free  of  the  Custom-house.  Only  spirits,  tobacco,  sugar,  mineral 
oils,  lucifer  matches,  and  in  general  all  articles  of  the  same  character  which 
are  subject  to  excise  duty  in  Siberia  proper,  pay  Custom-house  duties  when 
they  are  sent  for  sale  to  the  Siberian  ports  on  the  Pacific.  All  other  goods 
have  only  to  pay  ‘ customs  ’ if  they  are  forwarded  to  parts  of  the  Empire 
west  of  Baikalia,  and  these  are  paid  at  Irkutsk,  through  which  everything 
is  obliged  to  pass.  Tea  going  from  Kiakhta  pays  duty  at  Irkutsk. 

33  D 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


daily.  The  total  number  of  boxes  of  tea  which  passed  the 
Customs  in  1896  was  412,869. 

The  tea  harvest  in  China  takes  place  generally  in  spring, 
the  first  gathering  of  the  leaves  occurring  in  April,  the  fourth  and 
the  last  in  June.  The  latter  is  compressed  into  bricks,  is  of 
very  inferior  quality,  and  bought  only  by  the  poorer  people. 
The  great  tea-market  is  Hankow  on  the  Yang-tsze.  All  the 
great  Russian  houses  have  representatives  who  arrive  here 
annually  to  purchase,  and  expedite  the  tea  either  by  sea,  vi^ 
Odessa,  or  overland  by  Kiakhta.  We  must  not,  however, 
imagine  that  caravan  tea,  which  the  Russians  consider  to  be  the 
finest,  is  all  carried  overland.  Far  from  it,  but  then  the  purchasers 
are  not  supposed  to  know  this,  as  there  exists  a prejudice  to 
the  effect  that  tea  which  travels  by  water  is  thereby  deteriorated, 
which  is  nonsense,  since  all  tea  must  perform  a journey  by 
water  of  greater  or  less  length.  Even  that  which  is  destined 
for  Kiakhta  is  sent  by  boat  to  Tien-tsin,  whence  it  has  to 
ascend  the  Pei-ho  on  junks,  and  it  is  only  packed  on  the 
camels’  backs  at  Kalgan,  at  the  foot  of  the  Great  Wall.  Thence 
it  has  to  perform  a journey  of  not  less  than  900  miles  across 
the  desert  before  it  reaches  Urga,  the  sacred  town  of  Mon- 
golia, which  is  situated  at  a distance  of  160  miles  south  of 
Kiakhta.  Transport  can  only  take  place  in  the  month  of 
October,  when  the  roads  begin  to  get  hardened  by  the  first 
frosts,  and  the  camels  have  returned  from  the  pasture-lands 
where  they  pass  the  greater  part  of  the  summer.  These 
camels  are  hired  from  the  Mongolians,  and  there  is  great 
competition  among  the  merchants  to  secure  them,  the  Russians 
endeavouring  to  obtain  the  greater  number  of  beasts  before 
anybody  else  so  as  to  secure  the  first  crop  of  tea.  A certain 
quantity  of  tea  is  also  brought  to  Kiakhta  on  little  Mongolian 
carts,  which  invariably  return  home  carrying  with  them  three 
pieces  of  wook,  an  article  which  is  almost  valueless  in  Siberia, 
but  very  dear  in  China,  where  it  is  resold  at  a profit. 

The  camels  are  unloaded  at  Kiakhta,  and  the  wicker-boxes 
or  baskets,  each  containing  from  100  to  r6o  pounds  of  tea,  are 
divested  of  the  light  covering  of  camel’s  hair  which  sufficed  to 
protect  them  during  the  journey  across  the  Desert  of  Obi,  where 
rain  is  almost  unknown.  For  the  rest  of  the  journey  through 
Siberia  it  is  necessary  to  screen  them  with  a waterproof  covering 
made  of  camel’s  hide,  the  hair  being  turned  inwards.  Whilst 
the  process  of  enveloping  the  boxes  is  proceeding  it  is  almost 

34 


SIBERIA 


impossible  to  bear  the  intolerable  stench.  The  tea,  com- 
pressed into  bricks,  each  weighing  two  pounds  and  a half,  is 
next  sorted,  dusted,  and  those  which  have  been  in  any  degree 
damaged  are  separated  from  the  rest  and  sold  at  a low  price. 
Then  the  whole  of  the  tea,  be  it  in  leaf  or  brick,  is  packed  on 
the  sleighs  and  conveyed,  as  already  stated,  across  country, 
partly  by  water,  partly  over  the  routes  already  described.  At 
Irkutsk,  however,  the  Custom-house  officers  examine  a few  of 
the  cases,  and  stamp  the  rest  with  a leaden  brand,  and  the 
caravan  is  allowed  to  proceed  to  its  destination. 

The  earlier  teas  which  arrive  are  conveyed  by  sledge  to 
Irbit,  a town  on  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Ural,  but  beyond 
the  confines  of  Siberia,  and  in  the  Government  of  Perm. 
Between  February  ist  and  March  ist  Irbit  is  the  scene  of  an 
immense  fair,  which  attracts  merchants  from  all  parts  of  Siberia. 
The  principal  goods  dealt  in  are  Chinese  tea,  furs  from  the 
north  and  east,  and  light  manufactured  articles  from  Russian 
Europe.  The  total  sold  in  the  year  1880  amounted  to 
;^5, 286,000,  which  has  been  considerably  exceeded  since. 

The  principal  tea  caravans  do  not  arrive  in  the  region  of  the 
Obi  before  the  beginning  of  April,  the  sleighs  proceeding  very 
slowly,  and  the  stoppages  by  the  way  being  frequent.  Boats 
convey  the  fragrant  merchandise  between  Tomsk,  Tura,  and 
Tiumen,  terminal  stations  on  the  Ural  Railway,  whence  they 
are  conveyed  to  Perm.  Here  they  are  shipped  up  the  river 
Kama,  and  finally  embarked  on  the  Volga  and  taken  to  Nijni- 
Novgorod,  the  chief  centre  of  the  tea  trade  in  Russia.  Thence 
the  railways  distribute  the  merchandise  over  the  empire.  The 
results  of  the  tardier  crops  arrive  at  Irkutsk,  where  they  are 
embarked  on  the  Angara  and  conveyed  by  boat  to  the  meeting 
of  that  river  with  the  Yenissei,  where,  as  it  is  impossible  to 
ascend  the  latter,  the  rudely-constructed  boats  in  which  it  has 
hitherto  performed  the  journey  are  broken  up  and  sold  for 
firewood.  By  this  road  only  330  miles  are  performed  by 
land  to  Tomsk.  Some  of  the  merchants,  in  order  to  avoid 
as  much  as  possible  the  overland  route,  take  a much  longer 
one  by  water  via  Uliasutai,  a city  in  Western  Mongolia  on 
the  Upper  Yenissei.  The  above  will  suffice  to  give  the 
reader  an  idea  of  some  of  the  exceptional  difficulties  which  the 
tea  merchants  have  to  encounter  in  conveying  their  very  perish- 
able freight  across  Northern  Asia  into  Russia,  the  journey 
taking  not  less  than  a year  from  the  date  of  the  gathering  of 

35  D 2 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


the  leaves.  The  following  official  data,  registered  in  1893,  of 
the  expense  incurred  in  conveying  a single  pood,  or  thirty-six 
pounds  (English),  of  tea  from  Han-Keou  to  Nijni-Novgorod 
will  suffice  to  afford  a fair  notion  of  the  great  cost  of  transport. 

£ d. 

From  Han-Keou  to  Kiakhta  via  Tien-tsin  and  Urga 0 15  5 

Manipulation  at  Kiakhta  and  transport  to  Irkutsk  ..  ...064 

From  Irkutsk  to  Nijni  (by  sledge  to  Tomsk,  water  to  Tiumen, 

railway  to  Perm,  and  thence  by  water)  ...  ...  ...  o 12  9 

Insurance  from  Tien-tsin  to  Nijni,  2^  per  cent.  ...  ...01  loj 

Interest  on  capital 032 


Total 


19 


On  the  other  hand,  the  same  quantity  of  tea  transported 
from  Hankow  to  Nijni,  via  the  Suez  Canal  and  Odessa,  and 
thence  by  train  to  Nijni,  costs  only  thirteen  shillings.  From 
these  facts  it  can  easily  be  understood  that  the  great  commerce 
of  Kiakhta  is  purely  artificial  and  abnormal,  and  exists  simply 
thanks  to  the  enormous  difference  between  the  Custom-house 
duties  at  Odessa  and  those  at  Irkutsk.  At  the  former  place 
the  duty  is  ^3  6s.  per  pood,  or  thirty-six  pounds,  for  all  kinds 
of  tea,  whereas  at  Kiakhta  it  is  only  ^2  on  leaf  tea  and 
5s.  4d.  on  brick.  The  insignificance  of  this  latter  tax  is  very 
important,  because  brick  tea  is  the  only  sort  which  is  used  in 
Siberia  east  of  the  Volga,  the  greater  part  of  the  leaf  tea  being 
forwarded  to  Russia.  On  the  other  hand,  notwithstanding  its 
many  inconveniences,  the  tea  transport  across  Russia  is  a most 
important  factor  in  Siberian  existence,  since  it  furnishes  the 
means  of  livelihood  to  thousands  of  people  living  along  the 
great  postal-road,  and  indeed  is  a sort  of  subvention  which  the 
Russian  tea-drinkers  pay  to  Siberia,  and  one  which  the  Govern- 
ment very  wisely  keeps  up  by  maintaining  the  high  tariff  at 
Odessa.  It  is  interesting  to  follow  the  increasing  value  of  a 
pood  (thirty-six  pounds)  of  tea  on  its  way  from  Irkutsk  to  Nijni. 
On  entering  Siberia  at  the  former  place  from  China  it  only 
costs  j[^2  5s.  By  this  time  it  is  already  paying  the  cost  of  its 
transport  from  Hankow,  the  expenses  of  insurance,  etc.,  costing 
about  3s.,  the  Custom-house  duties  amount  to  about 
;^2,  that  is,  ;^3  2s.  credit,  and  the  transfer  thence  to  Nijni 
will  add  about  thirteen  shillings  to  its  value  ; so  that  when  we 
take  into  account  an  interest  of  three  shillings  on  the  capital 
employed  we  find  that  a product  which  cost  less  than  ten 

36 


SIBERIA 


roubles  where  it  grew  and  where  it  was  first  purchased,  by  the 
time  it  reaches  the  market  costs  forty-eight  roubles,  nearly  five 
times  its  original  value.  On  the  greater  part  of  the  leaf  tea 
which  passes  through  Odessa,  the  Russian  pays  on  every  pound 
of  tea  at  3s.  2d.  he  purchases  is.  to  the  Treasury.  The 
total  amount  of  Custom-house  duties  paid  on  tea  at  Irkutsk 
amounted  in  1896  to  ;;^i, 050,361. 

Independently  of  tea,  the  land  commerce  between  the  Russian 
Empire  and  China  is,  comparatively  speaking,  insignificant,  and 
rarely  exceeds  ;^265,ooo.  The  principal  object  of  import 
is  Russia  leather,  and  the  chief  article  from  China  is  a very 
light  but  strong  sort  of  silk,  much  worn  in  Siberia  during  the 
summer.  For  the  rest,  the  trade  between  Siberia  and  Russia 
consists  mainly  in  cereals  and  flour,  but  it  is  difficult  to  obtain 
exact  statistics  on  account  of  the  many  lines  of  communica- 
tion which  have  been  recently  opened  since  the  introduction 
of  the  railway. 


37 


CHAPTER  VI 


SIBERIAN  TOWNS 

Scarcity  of  towns  and  their  slight  importance — Their  administration  and 
commerce — Resemblance  to  the  towns  in  the  Russian  provinces — 
Introduction  of  telephones  and  electric  light — Intellectual  progress — 
University  at  Tomsk — The  drama  at  Irkutsk — The  crisis  through 
which  these  towns  are  passing. 

The  absence  of  large  manufactures  doubtless  accounts  in  a 
measure  for  the  fact  that  Siberia,  according  to  the  census  of 
1897,  only  contains  eleven  towns  inhabited  by  over  10,000 
souls.  Eight  of  these  (including  the  two  cities  of  Tomsk  and 
Irkutsk,  which  have  each  50,000  inhabitants)  are  situated  on 
the  postal-road  which  passes  from  the  foot  of  the  Ural  to 
Tiumen,  to  terminate  on  the  shores  of  the  Pacific  at  Vladi- 
vostok ; Omsk  is  situated  somewhat  to  the  south  of  the  old 
postal-road,  at  the  point  where  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway 
crosses  the  Irtysh  ; Tobolsk,  the  old  capital  of  Siberia,  which 
has  greatly  declined  in  our  day,  is  built  at  the  meeting  of  the 
Irtysh  and  the  Tobol,  and  also  close  to  the  junction  of  the  two 
great  highroads.  Barnaoul,  on  the  Upper  Obi,  is  the  only 
Siberian  town  of  any  importance  which  is  not  within  easy  reach 
of  either  the  railway  or  the  postal-road,  but  then  it  has  the 
advantage  of  being  situated  in  the  centre  of  the  most  highly 
cultivated  part  of  the  country.  There  exist,  also,  a number 
of  other  small  towns,  situated  on  the  two  main  arteries  and  in 
the  more  fertile  valleys.  All  of  them  are  centres  for  the  dis- 
tribution of  manufactured  articles  imported  from  Europe,  and 
also  depots  whence  the  products  cultivated  in  their  neighbour- 
hoods are  collected  and  expedited.  All  these  towns  are  seats 
both  of  administration  and  commerce,  and  the  local  capitals 
are  always,  with  the  sole  exception  of  Tobolsk,  the  biggest 

38 


SIBERIA 


towns  in  the  district,  and  contain  the  dwellings  of  the  officials 
and  other  functionaries,  which  add  greatly  to  their  handsome 
appearance.  In  the  region  of  the  Amur  and  the  Littoral 
garrisons  have  been  introduced,  which  lend  considerable  ani- 
mation to  the  place.  At  Vladivostok  in  1895  the  Russian 
population  consisted  of  2,780  civil  servants,  189  exiles,  555 
functionaries  and  priests  (including  their  wives  and  children),  and 
10,087  officers  and  soldiers  with  their  families.  At  Khabarofsk 
the  official  element  is  still  more  preponderating.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  Blagovyeshchensk,  situated  at  the  meeting  of  the 
Amur  and  the  Zeya,  which  owes  its  prosperity  to  the  neighbour- 
ing gold-mines,  the  towns  of  Eastern  Siberia  are  nothing  more 
or  less  than  camps  or  huge  villages  like  Chita  or  Nertchinsk, 
with  very  low  isbas,  or  wooden  houses,  prodigiously  broad 
streets,  vast  open  spaces,  the  whole  dominated  generally  by  the 
enormous  white  mass  of  some  official  edifice  or  other. 

In  the  west,  however,  between  the  Ural  and  Lake  Baikal, 
towns  exist  in  the  European  sense  of  the  word.  It  cannot 
be  said,  however,  that  they  are  remarkable  for  their  monumental 
beauty,  but  they  possess  a certain  measure  of  picturesque- 
ness, and  bear  a striking  resemblance  to  the  provincial 
towns  of  Russia  proper,  such  as  Saratof  or  Samara,  or  some 
quarters  of  Moscow  itself.  The  houses  are  nearly  all  built 
of  black  wood  like  those  peppered  all  over  the  country,  and 
are  built  on  either  side  of  the  long  streets  at  a little  distance  one 
from  another,  and  rarely,  if  ever,  embellished  by  a garden  or 
any  attempt  at  external  decoration.  The  streets  cross  each  other 
at  right  angles,  and  are  made  as  wide  as  possible,  on  account  of 
the  numerous  fires,  against  which  every  precaution  has  to  be 
taken,  and  people  are  actually  requested  not  to  smoke  on  the 
great  wooden  bridge  which  crosses  the  Angara  at  Irkutsk.  In 
certain  wealthier  quarters  of  the  towns  a story  is  usually  added 
to  the  houses,  which  are  painted  white,  gray,  or  some  other 
conspicuous  colour.  Occasionally  one  comes  across  a stone 
building  two  or  three  stories  high,  usually  either  the  shop  ot 
some  rich  merchant  or  official,  or  else  a museum,  hospital, 
gymnasium,  college  for  boys  or  school  for  girls,  or  sometimes 
an  immense  barracks. 

The  appearance  of  these  dwellings  when  grouped  together  on 
the  hill  tops,  as  at  Omsk,  is  agreeable,  especially  so  as  they  are 
interspersed  with  the  bright-coloured  cupolas  of  the  churches. 
As  to  the  latter,  they  are  innumerable.  There  is  literally 

39 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


one  at  every  corner.  Standing  at  the  centre  of  the  cathedral 
square  at  Irkutsk,  I was  able  to  see  no  less  than  seven  at  a 
glance.  They  are  all  exactly  alike,  usually  painted  blue  or 
rose-colour,  surmounted  by  one  big  cupola,  and  surrounded  by 
a lot  of  smaller  ones  brightly  gilt  or  silvered,  and  produce 
an  excellent  effect  in  the  sun  or  on  a clear  moonlight  night. 
Internally  they  possess  all  the  barbaric  splendour  of  Russian 
churches,  and  are  a blaze  of  gilt  icons  and  crystal  chandeliers. 

Take  them  for  all  in  all,  Siberian  towns  are  far  pleasanter  to 
visit  than  one  might  imagine.  The  streets,  as  a rule,  possess  a 
wooden  pavement,  but  after  a heavy  rain  they  are  very  apt  to 
become  impassable.  A gentleman  at  Tomsk  once  assured  me 
that  on  one  occasion  when  the  snow  melted  a bullock  was 
drowned  in  the  surging  mass  of  water  rolling  past  his  door. 
But,  after  all,  the  streets  of  Chicago  and  New  Orleans  are  not 
very  well  kept,  and  where  the  climatic  variations  are  so  extreme, 
it  is  doubtless  almost  an  impossibility  to  keep  the  streets  in 
anything  like  proper  order.  Otherwise,  the  telephone  is  to  be 
found  in  all  the  more  important  towns,  and  when  the  visitor 
looks  up  and  sees  such  an  amazing  number  of  wires  stretching 
across  the  streets  from  pole  to  pole,  he  might  readily  imagine 
himself  in  America.  The  electric  light  has  also  been  introduced 
even  at  Tomsk  and  Irkutsk.  Means  of  locomotion  have  by  no 
means  been  neglected,  and  you  can  hire  a quick  going  little 
Russian  cabriolet  for  twenty  kopecks,  or  sixpence  the  fare! 
What  astonishes  one  most,  however,  is  that,  as  in  Russia,  there 
is  scarcely  any  movement  in  the  streets  of  these  towns,  not- 
withstanding that  they  are  centres  of  a very  active  commerce. 

Education  has  made  considerable  progress  in  the  towns  of 
Siberia,  and  the  wealthier  classes  are  not  behindhand  in  assist- 
ing the  Government  in  this  direction.  At  Tomsk  a University 
has  recently  been  established  in  an  immense  and  very  hand- 
some edifice,  which  contains  at  present  some  500  students. 
Admission  has  been  wisely  rendered  much  more  easy  than  it 
is  in  Russia,  and  it  is  expected  that  before  long  a faculty  of 
Law  will  be  established,  in  which  the  students  will  be  able 
to  study  the  new  legal  reforms  which  Alexander  II.  intro- 
duced some  years  ago  into  the  judicial  system  of  Russia. 
Other  professorial  chairs  will  be  introduced  before  long  in 
addition  to  that  of  Medicine,  which  is  already  very  well 
attended.  The  library  contains  over  200,000  volumes,  the 
greater  part  gifts  from  private  benefactors,  and  not  a few  of  the 

40 


SIBERIA 


rarer  editions  of  French  and  English  classics  must  have 
originally  belonged  to  libraries  dispersed  at  the  time  of  the 
French  Revolution.  A number  of  comfortable  houses  have 
been  built  in  the  park  attached  to  the  University  (only  a very 
short  time  ago  virgin  forest)  for  the  benefit  of  students,  who 
can  there  receive  board  and  lodging  at  a very  moderate  price. 
In  addition  to  the  University,  another  huge  educational 
establishment,  an  Institute  of  Technology,  is  in  progress  of 
construction.  Tomsk,  although  it  is  somewhat  out  of  the  way 
for  commercial  purposes,  appears  to  me  destined  to  become 
before  long  the  intellectual  centre  of  Siberia. 

All  the  Siberian  towns  possess  a theatre.  The  one  at  Tomsk 
was  built  by  a rich  merchant  some  years  ago,  and  during  the 
winter  months  two  permanent  troupes  give  on  alternate  nights 
representations  of  opera  and  drama.  Troupes  of  Russian 
actors  occasionally  visit  Siberia,  and  I remember  once  seeing 
two  artists,  who  enjoy  great  popularity  at  Moscow,  give  at 
Krasnoyarsk  a representation  in  Russian  of  Shakespeare’s 
‘ Taming  of  the  Shrew,’  and  on  the  following  evening  an  excel- 
lent performance  of  ‘ Madame  Sans-Gene.’  These  plays  were 
attended  by  large  and  highly  appreciative  audiences.  At  Irkutsk 
there  is  a really  magnificent  theatre  capable  of  accommodating  a 
thousand  persons,  the  erection  of  which  cost  not  less  than 
;^32,ooo.  It  was  built  entirely  by  public  subscription,  at  the 
head  of  the  list  being  the  Governor.  The  prices  of  admission 
are — stalls  6s.  8d.  in  the  front  row  ; as.  2d.  in  the  back  seats ; 
IS.  in  the  first  row  of  the  second  gallery,  and  6d.  in  the  third. 
These  latter  are  the  cheapest  seats  in  the  house.  Unfor- 
tunately, of  late  years,  the  wealthier  classes  show  a distinct 
tendency,  thanks  to  facilities  of  travel,  to  spend  their  money  in 
Russia,  and  even  in  Paris,  and  the  rich  merchants  are  no  longer 
inclined  to  dazzle  the  Siberians  by  a somewhat  barbaric 
display  of  their  wealth.  At  Moscow  and  Petersburg,  doubtless, 
they  find  a greater  variety  of  amusements,  and  no  need,  in 
order  to  spend  their  money,  to  follow  the  example  of  a certain 
Siberian  millionaire  who  used  to  wash  his  chamber-floor  with 
champagne.  Other  times,  other  manners.  If  the  principals 
go  to  St.  Petersburg,  their  representatives  remain  behind,  and 
although  they  are  unable  to  make  any  very  ostentatious 
display,  nevertheless,  they  contrive  to  live  comfortably.  The 
position  also  of  the  officials,  owing  probably  to  the  increased 
facilities  of  communication  and  the  spread  of  education,  has 

4i 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


lost  a good  deal  of  its  former  importance,  and  governors  of 
provinces,  who  were  in  days  of  yore  kings  or  demigods,  are 
no  longer  looked  upon  with  any  sense  of  awe,  everybody 
being  aware  that  they  receive  their  daily  orders  by  telegraph 
from  St.  Petersburg.  Irkutsk,  which  in  former  times  was  the 
capital,  is  now  only  a large  provincial  city.  The  grand  old 
Siberian  hospitality  is  disappearing  rapidly,  and  there  are  not 
wanting,  even  in  Siberia,  old-fashioned  people  who  curse  the 
Trans  Siberian  Railway,  which  is  destined  sooner  or  later  to 
revolutionize  the  manners  and  customs  of  Northern  Asia. 


4* 


CHAPTER  VII 


IMMIGRATION 

Causes  of  Russian  emigration  to  Siberia — Its  increasing  importance — 
Absolute  necessity  for  State  intervention  in  the  colonization  of  Asiatic 
Russia — Roads  followed  by  the  emigrants — Land  concessions — Pro- 
vinces towards  which  they  direct  themselves — Colonization  of  the 
Province  of  the  Amur  and  the  Littoral  — Vladivostok  — Chinese, 
Koreans  and  Japanese — Exiles  and  convicts — Conditions  for  the  de- 
velopment of  Siberia — Favourable  and  unfavourable  elements — Neces- 
sity of  employing  foreign  capital. 

The  immigrants  who  arrive  in  Siberia  are  almost  without 
exception  peasants.  According  to  the  census  taken  last 
January,  there  were  in  Russian  Europe,  exclusive  of  Finland 
and  Poland,  whose  inhabitants  rarely,  if  ever,  emigrate,  only 
94,000,000  inhabitants  scattered  over  a surface  of  1,875,000 
square  miles,  that  is  to  say,  fifty  inhabitants  per  square 
mile.  One  would  imagine,  therefore,  that  there  was  ample 
space  for  all  the  subjects  of  the  Tsar  in  his  European  territories; 
but  the  great  northern  Governments  of  Arkhangelsk,  Vologda, 
and  Olonetz,  which  occupy  over  a quarter  of  this  area,  and  in 
which  agriculture  is  almost  impossible,  do  not  contain  more 
than  2,000,000  inhabitants  in  540,560  square  miles.  Then, 
again,  a great  number  of  the  Governments  situated  to  the 
north  of  Moscow  consist  of  only  very  inferior  marsh-lands, 
and  are  but  poorly  populated,  and,  what  is  more,  seem  un- 
likely ever  to  improve.  The  majority  of  the  inhabitants  of 
the  empire  are  therefore  concentrated  in  the  south,  where  the 
population  is  relatively  dense,  especially  in  the  Governments  of 
Kursk,  Penza,  Tambof,  Orel,  Voronej,  and  notably  so  in  Little 
Russia,  which  is  all  the  more  remarkable  when  we  consider 
that  these  regions  are  exclusively  agricultural,  and  that  the 
methods  of  farming  are  still  very  primitive.  Notwithstanding, 

43 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


however,  the  rapid  development  of  industry  in  Russia,  many 
years  will  pass  before  these  regions  will  be  capable  of  support- 
ing a population  equal  to  that  of  Central  or  Western  Europe, 
where  the  natural  conditions  are  more  or  less  identical.  It  is 
not  therefore  very  surprising  that  a fraction  of  the  population  of 
Russia  should  go  in  search  of  better  climes,  and  direct  itself 
towards  Southern  Siberia,  a more  attractive  and  fertile  country 
than  Northern  Russia. 

Emigration,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind,  is  but  a small  item  in 
the  natural  causes  of  the  increase  of  the  Russian  population. 
The  annual  excess  of  births  over  deaths  rises  to  about  1,500,000 
in  the  whole  of  the  Empire,  and  is  from  1,100,000  to  1,200,000 
in  European  Russia  (Poland  and  Finland  always  excepted). 
The  emigration  towards  Asia  has  up  to  1895  scarcely  exceeded 
a tenth  of  this  figure,  and  does  not  even  now  reach  more 
than  a fifth  or  a sixth.  According  to  an  official  work  published 
at  the  end  of  1896,  the  ‘Statesman’s  Handbook  to  Russia,’ 
we  find  that  during  1887-95,  94>ooo  families,  forming  an  ag- 
gregate total  of  467,000  persons,  established  themselves  in 
Siberia.  The  average  therefore  would  be  about  52,000  souls 
per  annum,  but  the  last  few  years  have  witnessed  a visible 
increase.  The  above  figures  do  not  apparently  include 
emigrants  who  are  destined  for  Central  Asia  (general  Govern- 
ment of  the  Steppes  and  Turkestan),  to  which  the  total  rarely 
exceeds  10,000  per  annum.  According  to  information  received 
direct  from  Siberia,  about  63,000  emigrants  arrived  in  1894 
over  the  Ural  from  European  Russia.  On  the  other  hand, 
3,495  entered  Siberia  by  sea,  landing  in  the  great  Littoral 
Province  on  the  Pacific.  Lately  the  emigration  movement 
has  become  much  more  active,  and  we  should  not  be  far  out 
of  our  reckoning  if  we  estimated  the  number  of  emigrants 
into  Siberia  for  the  years  1897  and  1898  as  about  200,000  for 
each  year.  The  number  of  persons  who  seek  permission  to 
leave  Russia  for  Siberia  is  becoming  greater  every  year.  Many, 
however,  are  discouraged  and  even  refused  the  necessary 
papers,  so  as  to  avoid  burdening  the  newly-settled  country  with 
a superfluity  of  people  who  generally  arrive  without  a penny  in 
their  pockets.  It  is  natural  in  a country  where  the  peasantry 
are  still  so  primitive  and  ignorant  as  in  Russia  that  the  Govern- 
ment should  closely  watch  the  movements  of  emigrants,  who 
might,  on  finding  exaggerated  promises  and  illusions  dispelled, 
become  troublesome  and  even  dangerous.  The  following  is 

44 


SIBERIA 


the  manner  in  which  these  matters  are  generally  organized 
in  European  Russia.  When  several  families  belonging  to  a 
volost  express  a wish  to  emigrate  they  are  requested  to  deter- 
mine in  what  part  of  Siberia  they  desire  to  establish  them- 
selves. If  the  applicants  are  deemed  suitable,  two  of  their 
number,  selected  as  delegates,  visit  the  parcel  of  land  which  has 
been  allotted  to  them,  and  on  returning  they  are  able  to  inform 
their  friends  as  to  the  exact  nature  of  the  place  to  which  they 
are  destined.  Formerly,  the  emigrants  were  allowed  to  choose 
their  own  land,  which,  as  they  were  almost  invariably  very  in- 
experienced, was  usually  quite  unsuited  to  their  requirements, 
and  they  either  went  further  afield  or,  disgusted,  returned 
home.  In  order,  therefore,  to  prevent  a recurrence  of  this  un- 
satisfactory state  of  affairs,  the  sensible  system  of  sending  on 
two  delegates  or  pioneers  has  been  established. 

The  method  selected  by  emigrants  entering  Siberia  was,  until 
quite  recently,  to  ascend  the  Kama,  and  take  the  Ural  Railway 
at  Perm  for  Tiumen  ; thence,  at  this  terminus,  they  embarked 
either  on  the  Tobol,  the  Irtysh,  or  the  Obi  for  Tobolsk,  which 
used  to  be  a great  rendezvous  for  the  emigrants.  In  1893  the 
Siberian  Railway  had  not  reached  Omsk,  and  out  of  63,000 
emigrants,  56,500  had  entered  Asia  by  the  Tiumen,  and  6,500 
only  had  taken  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway  to  Kurgan.  Among 
the  first,  36,500  followed  the  water-way  which  I have  just 
described,  and  20,000  performed  the  journey  in  carts.  To-day 
the  greater  number  are  transported  by  the  railway  to  the  station 
nearest  to  the  town  selected  for  their  future  residence,  or  to  the 
extreme  limit  of  the  line,  if  they  are  going  farther  east.  There 
they  are  obliged  to  take  the  telega,  a sort  of  Russian  cart, 
shaped  like  a trough,  on  four  wheels.  I have  often  met  on  the 
high-roads  in  Siberia  long  lines  of  these  carts,  each  containing 
several  persons,  men,  women  and  children,  with  their  labouring 
tools  and  household  belongings.  The  scene  is  very  picturesque, 
especially  towards  evening,  when  the  worthy  folk  encamp  on 
the  highroad  : the  men  unsaddling  the  horses,  the  women  going 
to  the  well  for  water,  and  the  children  playing  about,  whilst 
some  old  man,  seated  on  the  wayside,  reads  the  Bible  out  aloud 
to  a group  of  eager  listeners.  Sometimes  the  journey  exhausts 
the  resources  of  the  family,  and  I have  seen  in  Trans-Baikalia 
a caravan  of  Little  Russians  come  to  a full-stop  for  want  of 
money,  and  the  good  people,  encamped  on  the  highway, 
quietly  awaiting  the  arrival  of  the  district  Immigration  Agent,  to 

45 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


obtain  from  him  the  supplies  necessary  to  enable  them  to 
continue  the  journey.  Emigrants  who  travel  by  telega  from 
their  old  home  in  Europe  to  the  new  one  in  Asia  often 
consume  as  much  as  a whole  year  in  the  journey  from  Little 
Russia  to  the  Amur,  albeit  the  travellers  frequently  spend  as 
many  as  three  months  at  a time  working  on  the  railway,  in 
order  to  add  a little  to  their  scanty  supply  of  cash. 

The  majority  of  the  emigrants  arrive  in  spring.  In  the 
principal  towns  on  the  route  refuges  have  been  organized  for 
their  shelter.  A number  of  these  are  to  be  found  at  Chelia- 
binsk  at  the  foot  of  the  Ural.  I visited  that  at  Kansk,  the 
centre  of  a much-frequented  region  in  the  Government  of 
Yenissei.  Twenty  iourdis,  or  enormous  huts,  built  on  the 
model  of  those  used  by  the  Kirghiz  and  from  ten  to  twelve  feet 
in  diameter  and  nine  feet  in  height,  with  an  extinguisher  shaped 
roof  covered  with  camel’s-hide,  were  here  erected  for  destitute 
emigrants.  A spacious  hospital,  kitchens  and  a Russian  bath 
were  at  the  time  nearly  completed.  A winter  habitation  with  an 
immense  stove  had  also  been  erected,  but  there  are  not  many 
emigrants  travelling  during  the  worst  months  of  the  year.  All 
these  buildings  are  of  wood,  after  the  fashion  of  most  Russian 
houses,  and  seemed  fairly  comfortable.  Three  young  women 
from  the  town  acted  as  voluntary  nurses  attached  to  the  hospital. 

Emigrants  who  come  from  the  same  district  in  European 
Russia  are  as  a rule  grouped  together  in  the  same  village,  and, 
as  far  as  possible,  everything  is  done  to  prevent  the  crowding 
together  of  people  who  come  from  divergent  provinces,  which 
might  give  rise  to  trouble.  Thus,  the  officials  always  endeavour 
to  avoid  mixing  the  ‘ Little  Russians  ’ with  the  ‘ Great  Russians,’ 
and  never  to  introduce  new-comers  into  villages  already 
inhabited  by  old  Siberians,  who  do  not  look  upon  emigration 
in  a very  favourable  light,  for  the  simple  reason  that  formerly 
they  could  occupy  as  much  land  as  they  liked  and  redeem  as 
much  of  it  as  they  chose,  whenever  their  own  fields  became 
exhausted,  and  they  could,  moreover,  even  tramp  off  in  another 
direction  in  quest  of  better  land  if  the  spirit  moved  them  so  to 
do.  The  arrival  of  a great  number  of  new  people  has  naturally 
put  an  end  to  these  irresponsible  movements,  and  consequently 
given  rise  to  a great  deal  of  discontent. 

The  following  are  a few  rules  which  have  been  adopted 
recently  for  the  formation  of  fresh  settlements,  on  the  mir 
system  of  Russian  collective  communal  proprietorship,  which 

46 


SIBERIA 


the  Government  has  decided  to  introduce  into  Siberia.  Fifteen 
dessiatines  (37  acres)  are  given  gratuitously  to  each  man,  and 
a sum  of  30  roubles  (about  ^^3  is.  8d.)  can,  if  necessary,  be 
advanced  to  each  family  immediately.  Formerly  it  was 
necessary  to  await  authorization  from  the  Government  at 
St.  Petersburg,  even  for  this  small  amount,  before  it  could  be 
paid,  but,  now,  happily,  it  has  been  decided  to  leave  the  matter 
in  the  hands  of  the  functionary  who  is  placed  at  the  head  of 
the  Immigration  Bureau  of  the  district,  whereby  a great  deal  of 
trouble  and  misery  is  avoided.  Other  sums  of  money  can  be 
advanced  from  time  to  time  up  to  los.  if  the  applicant  is 
deemed  worthy.  Theoretically  this  money  ought  to  be  repaid 
at  the  end  of  ten  years,  which,  needless  to  say,  it  rarely,  if 
ever,  is. 

Of  the  63,000  persons  who  arrived  in  Siberia  from  over  the 
Ural  in  1894,  the  majority,  38,000,  settled  in  the  Government  of 
Tomsk,  17,000  proceeded  to  the  Amur,  3,800  to  the  Steppes, 
2,100  to  the  eastern  Governments  of  Yenissei  and  Irkutsk,  and 
2,100  to  the  Government  of  Tobolsk.  These  figures  do  not 
include  the  3,495  who  entered  the  Littoral  Province  by  sea. 
The  region  which  appears  to  attract  the  most  emigrants  is  that 
of  the  Upper  Obi  and  its  affluents,  including  the  regions  of 
Barnaoul,  Biisk,  and  Kuznetsk  in  the  Government  of  Tomsk. 
In  these  sheltered  valleys,  which  descend  from  the  Altai  range, 
the  climate  is  relatively  mild  and  the  land  excellent.  After  this 
comes  the  region  of  the  Amur,  where  the  emigrants  are 
almost  exclusively  Little  Russians,  who  generally  established 
themselves  in  the  region  extending  along  the  Lower  Zeya  to 
the  east  of  Blagovyeshchensk  and  the  Bureya.  The  climate, 
however,  is  much  colder  than  in  the  Government  of  Tomsk, 
and  although  the  richest  part  of  the  Amur  has  been  selected 
for  the  principal  centre  of  colonization,  the  damp  is  excessive 
on  account  of  its  proximity  to  the  great  water  and  to  the  very 
thick  forests  which  cover  almost  the  whole  country.  The 
valleys,  even  on  the  borders  of  the  Amur  and  its  affluents,  are 
often  inundated,  and  always  marshy,  and  have,  moreover,  up 
to  the  present  resisted  all  attempts  at  cultivation.  The 
plateaux  to  the  north  of  the  Stanovoi  Mountains  possess  a 
better  kind  of  soil,  and  form  a more  favourable  zone, 
although  even  here  cereals  have  a tendency  to  produce, 
much  to  their  detriment,  a superabundance  of  weeds.  The 
Government,  which,  for  political  reasons  easily  understood, 

47 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


has  hitherto  assisted  colonization  in  the  basin  of  the  Amur,  has 
refused  until  quite  lately  to  extend  the  movement  to  the  region 
of  the  Yenissei,  being  possibly  under  the  impression  that  an 
excessive  scattering  of  the  new  population  ought  as  much 
as  possible  to  be  avoided.  Now  that  a considerable  part  of 
the  richer  lands  of  Tomsk  is  occupied,  it  has  been  deemed 
advisable  to  make  an  advance  towards  the  east ; therefore,  in 
1896  19,000  colonists  were  settled  in  the  Government  of  the 
Yenissei,  notably  in  the  districts  of  Minusinsk,  on  the  upper 
river,  which  enjoys  nearly  the  same  advantages  as  the  Upper 
Obi,  and  Kansk  more  to  the  east,  which  is  now  the  most 
active  centre  of  settlement.  The  Government  of  Irkutsk, 
which  apparently  contains  a lesser  supply  of  likely  land,  will 
doubtless  attract  official  attention  later  on. 

Settlers  who  have  been  for  some  considerable  time  in 
Siberia  appear  generally  satisfied  with  their  lot,  and  although 
they  may  not  endorse  the  optimistic  affirmations  of  the 
official  world,  the  majority  of  their  villages  appear  more  pros- 
perous than  those  they  abandoned  in  Russian  Europe.  It 
could  hardly  be  otherwise  if  they  worked  hard,  since  they  are 
allotted  abundance  of  good  land  and  a small  pecuniary 
advance  to  assist  them  with  preliminary  expenses.  Neverthe- 
less, a number  of  them  return  to  Europe  every  year.  In  1894 
as  many  as  4,500  went  back,  and,  I fancy,  if  the  truth  were 
known,  a great  many  more.  I once  asked  an  official  in  charge 
of  the  emigrants  at  Kansk,  a very  amiable,  well-informed  man, 
who  takes  a great  interest  in  his  duties,  why  so  many  of  these 
good  people  wanted  to  go  home  again.  He  replied  that  not  a 
few  peasants  emigrated  into  Siberia  under  the  illusion  that  they 
would  be  much  better  off,  and  not  have  to  work  so  hard,  but 
when  they  found  that  they  had  to  labour  as  hard  as  ever,  they 
soon  got  tired,  packed  up  their  traps,  and  returned  home. 
Others  complain  of  the  climate,  not  so  much,  as  we  might 
imagine,  of  the  winter  as  of  the  summer,  when  the  mosquitoes 
are  a perfect  plague.  Some  suffer  from  home -sickness, 
especially  the  women,  who  regret  their  former  surroundings, 
and  who  by  incessant  complaints  and  lamentations  end  by 
worrying  their  husbands  to  return.  This,  however,  is  not 
peculiar  to  Siberia  or  to  the  Russians,  for  it  has  even  been 
noticed  in  the  United  States,  where  young  colonists  are  often 
obliged  to  give  up  their  farms  because  their  wives  find  an 
isolated  country  life  insupportable. 

48 


SIBERIA 


In  the  greater  part  of  Siberia  the  population,  as  we  have 
already  observed,  is  exclusively  Russian.  The  native  element 
may  almost  be  described  as  non-existent.  From  the  ethno- 
logical point  of  view,  the  region  from  the  Obi  to  the  Yenisseiis 
already,  and  tends  to  become  more  and  more  so,  a prolongation 
of  European  Russia.  In  the  government  of  the  Amur  it  is, 
however,  otherwise,  for  the  Russians  have  to  face  a native 
population,  and  the  colonists  who  have  come  from  the 
European  dominions  of  the  Tsar  find  themselves  obliged  to 
compete  with  a rather  formidable  Asiatic  contingent.  On  this 
side  the  centre  of  Russian  influence  is  at  Vladivostok,  a town 
which  was  only  founded  about  forty  years  ago,  but  which  the 
Trans-Siberian  line  will  eventually  lift  to  extreme  importance. 
The  only  shadow  in  the  picture  is  that  during  three  or  four 
winter  months  the  harbour  is  covered  with  ice.  The  noble 
bay,  which  the  English  formerly  named  after  Queen  Victoria, 
and  which  the  Russians  have  now  placed  under  the  patronage 
of  Peter  the  Great,  is  one  of  the  most  magnificent  in  the  world, 
in  which  the  whole  Russian  fleet  could  easily  find  shelter ; but, 
unfortunately,  although  it  is  in  the  same  latitude  as  Toulon, 
it  freezes  very  easily.*  For  this  reason  Vladivostok  may  suffer 
considerably  from  the  greater  attractions  of  Port  Arthur,  which 
is  even  better  placed  at  the  head  of  the  line  of  communication 
towards  the  Celestial  Empire,  and  is,  moreover,  free  from  ice 
the  whole  year  round.  Nevertheless,  the  town  will  remain  the 
seat  of  many  important  military  establishments,  which  are 
already  in  existence,  and  which  it  would  be  exceedingly  ex- 
pensive, and  by  no  means  easy,  to  remove  elsewhere. 

Splendidly  situated  at  the  head  of  a peninsula  about  twelve 
miles  long,  separating  two  deep  bays,  whose  shores,  however, 
are  absolutely  sterile,  Vladivostok  faces  the  principal  and  the 
more  eastern  of  the  two  ports,  which  happens,  also,  to  be  the 
safest.  The  town  contains  a number  of  stone  houses  several 
stories  high,  built  on  the  rather  steep  sides  of  the  hills,  and 
presents  quite  an  imposing  appearance,  especially  after  the 
little  wooden-housed  towns  in  the  interior  of  Siberia.  Although 
it  lacks  the  extraordinary  animation  of  its  contemporaries, 
Vancouver,  Tacoma,  and  Seattle,  for  instance,  on  the  other 
side  of  the  Pacific,  its  streets  are  the  liveliest  I have  seen 
between  Moscow  and  Nagasaki.  It  soon  becomes  evident 

• By  means  of  an  ice-breaking  steamer  vessels  are  now  able  to  leave  or 
enter  Vladivostok  harbour  at  any  time. 

49 


E 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


that  one  is  in  the  Far  East  here.  The  streets  are  crowded  with 
pigtailed  Chinese  in  blue,  with  Koreans  in  white,  and  Japanese 
in  their  national  costumes.  Among  these  Asiatics  move  soldiers 
and  sailors,  so  that  the  European  civilian  costume  is  scarcely 
represented  at  all,  and  the  majority  of  those  who  do  wear  it 
are  Japanese.  The  day  after  my  arrival  happened  to  be  the 
feast  of  St.  Alexander  Nevsky,  one  of  the  great  Russian  holidays, 
which  coincided  with  a Chinese  festival,  so  that  the  whole  place 
was  a blaze  of  Celestial  bunting,  gold-edged  yellow  triangular 
shaped  flags,  emblazoned  with  heraldic  dragons,  far  out-number- 
ing those  of  the  Russians.  Figures  confirm  the  impressions 
of  experience,  and  the  following  show  the  manner  in  which  the 
population  of  Vladivostok  was  subdivided  in  1895  : 


Men. 

Women. 

Total, 

Nobles  ... 

290 

228 

518 

Priests  and  their  families 

19 

18 

37 

Russian  civil  population 

1,691 

1,089 

2,780 

Soldiers  and  families  ...  ... 

9,232 

855 

10,087 

Exiles  and  families  ... 

II7 

72 

189 

Other  Europeans  ... 

46 

26 

72 

Japanese  ...  ...  ... 

676 

556 

1,232 

Chinese... 

5,580 

58 

5,638 

Koreans 

642 

177 

819 

Total 

18,293 

3,079 

21,372 

In  1895  l^he  population  had  considerably  increased,  mainly 
in  consequence  of  the  barracks  and  of  the  increase  of  Russian 
and  Asiatic  emigration.  It  has  been  observed  that  since  the 
Chino-Japanese  War  the  Koreans  have  developed  a distinct 
tendency  to  establish  themselves  on  Russian  soil. 

As  in  California  and  Australia,  the  Chinese  who  arrive  in 
Vladivostok  do  so  without  bringing  their  wives.  They  are 
mainly  engaged  as  workmen,  domestic  servants,  boatmen,  eta 
When  they  have  amassed  a small  fortune  they  return  home. 
Many  of  them,  indeed,  pass  the  winter  in  Shan-tung,  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Chi-fu,  of  which  latter  place  they  are  nearly 
all  natives.  The  Japanese  are,  likewise,  engaged  in  petty  trade, 
and  a considerable  number  of  them  are  hairdressers.  It  is  also 
whispered  abroad,  and  pretty  freely,  too,  that  not  a few  of  them 
are  spies.  A high  code  of  morals  would  condemn  the  manner 
in  which  the  majority  of  the  Japanese  here  gain  their  liveli- 

5° 


SIBERIA 


hood.  As  to  the  Koreans,  being  very  strong,  they  are  better 
adapted  for  hard  work,  and  have  supplied  a number  of  hands 
on  the  railway.  They  are  more  numerous  in  the  environs  of 
Vladivostok  than  in  the  town  itself — and  they  are  highly  appre- 
ciated by  their  employers,  the  administration  affording  them 
small  allotments  on  account  of  their  industrious  and  peaceful 
habits. 

It  is  not  only  at  Vladivostok  that  the  influence  of  the  Far 
East  appears,  but  throughout  the  entire  government  of  the 
Amur.  From  the  moment  one  enters  Trans-Baikalia  one  is 
brought  into  immediate  contact  with  the  Mongol  tribe  of  the 
Buriats.  As  already  stated  elsewhere,  the  Yellow  Race  pre- 
dominates in  this  region,  and  throughout  Trans-Baikalia  the 
followers  of  Buddhism  form  about  a third  of  the  population — 
in  1895,  i9°>o°3  out  of  610,604.  Advancing  towards  the  East, 
and  leaving  aside  the  older  Russian  possessions  in  order  to 
enter  the  provinces  annexed  in  1857,  we  find  that  the  territory 
of  the  Amur  contains  21,000  Manchu  Buddhists  out  of  a 
population  of  112,000  according  to  the  census  of  1897.  These 
Manchus  were  about  the  only  occupants  of  the  country  at  the 
time  of  its  annexation,  and  not  a few  have  remained  subjects 
of  the  Chinese  Empire.  Opposite  to  Blagovyeshchensk  there 
is  a large  Chinese  village,  whence  almost  every  morning  a 
number  of  people  bring  fruit  and  vegetables  to  the  Russian 
town. 

In  the  territory  of  the  Littoral,  in  that  broad  zone  which 
extends  from  42°  to  70°  north,  it  was  estimated  in  1895  that 
the  Russians  exceeded  110,000  in  a population  of  152,000, 
the  rest  being  composed  of  23,000  natives,  18,000  Chinese, 
Koreans  and  Japanese,  and  about  1,000  Jews.  According  to 
the  census  taken  in  1897,  the  population  has  very  considerably 
increased.  It  records  214,940  inhabitants,  but  these  have  not 
been  subdivided  into  classes,  and,  moreover,  the  European 
immigration  has  not  been  very  considerable  in  the  last  two 
years.  A curious  observation  has  been  made  as  to  the  pre- 
ponderance of  the  male  sex  over  the  female,  there  being 
147,669  men  as  against  67,261  women.  The  reason  for  this  is 
not  far  to  seek,  and  is  mainly  due  to  the  fact  that  the  Russian 
immigrants  generally  arrive  with  their  families,  whereas  the 
military  element,  exceeding  40,000  in  the  Littoral  Province, 
and  the  Chinese  are  not  encumbered  with  women  folk. 
Khabarofsk,  essentially  a garrison  town,  and  the  capital  of  the 

51  E a 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 

government,  has  out  of  a population  of  14,932  only  3,259 
women.  Its  appearance  is,  therefore,  quite  martial,  and  its 
picturesqueness  is  considerably  improved  by  the  presence  of  a 
number  of  Chinese  junks  in  the  harbour,  that,  as  is  the  case 
at  Blagovyeshchensk,  Sydney  and  Melbourne,  bring  excellent 
vegetables  from  the  fertile  kingdom  of  the  Son  of  Heaven. 
Apart  from  the  troops,  the  Koreans,  the  Chinese  and  the 
Japanese  form  at  least  a quarter  of  the  population  of  the 
Littoral,  and,  combined  with  the  natives,  reach  a total  which  is 
only  slightly  overtopped  by  the  Russians.  There  are  not 
wanting  those  who  disapprove  of  this  high  proportion  of  the 
Yellow  Race  in  the  three  territories  forming  the  Government  of 
the  Amur,  but  without  any  justifiable  reason.  The  Buriats, 
for  instance,  are  by  no  means  a decreasing  element  in  the 
population,  and  the  Russians  are  distinctly  prolific,  whereas 
the  Chinese  immigration,  if  it  ever  takes  place  on  any  consider- 
able scale,  will  have  to  cross  the  Desert  of  Gobi,  an  obstacle 
which  will  delay  it  for  a long  time  to  come.  In  the  other 
two  territories,  the  indigenous  population,  mostly  fishermen 
and  hunters  of  a very  primitive  sort,  is  undoubtedly  visibly 
diminishing,  excepting  in  the  ice-bound  regions  of  the  Okhotsk 
and  Behring  Straits,  whither,  too,  Manchus,  Chinese  and 
Koreans  are  flocking  in  considerable  numbers.  All  these 
Asiatics  are  hardworking,  live  upon  less  than  the  Russians, 
and  are  much  more  industrious  and  often  hire  from  the 
European  immigrants  strips  of  land  which  they  cultivate  with 
much  better  results.  The  small  trade  of  the  towns  is  almost 
entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  Yellow  Race.  Although  the 
Chinese  immigration  is  more  or  less  of  an  ephemeral  nature, 
it  is  very  likely  to  become  exceedingly  numerous,  especially 
in  the  towns  and  their  suburbs,  and  might  in  the  course  of 
time  render  the  competition  of  the  Wh^es  extremely  difficult, 
and  necessitate  interference  on  the  part  of  the  Russian 
Government  to  limit  the  sphere  of  Chinese  labour.  In  any 
case,  it  is  quite  certain  that  if  Manchuria,  as  a consequence 
of  the  introduction  of  the  railway,  ever  comes  under  the 
dominion  of  the  Tsar,  it  is  highly  improbable  that  its  so  doing 
will  increase  the  immigration  of  the  Russians,  mainly  on 
account  of  the  surprising  activity  of  the  Chinese  in  colonizing 
this  part  of  their  empire.  At  the  present  time  the  Govern- 
ment is  more  preoccupied  with  the  European  than  with 
the  Asiatic  immigration,  and,  whereas  it  never  refuses  a grant 

53 


SIBERIA 


of  land  to  the  Koreans,  it  very  frequently  does  so  to  the 
Europeans,  excepting  by  special  and  exceptional  favour.  I 
am  obliged  to  admit  that  the  Government  has,  as  a rule,  been 
very  indulgent  towards  the  French,  several  of  whom  have 
obtained  grants  at  Blagovyeshchensk,  although  a refusal  was 
given  to  a Frenchman  to  buy  land  notwithstanding  that  he 
had  lived  in  the  country  for  over  thirty  years.  As  to  the  gold 
mines,  their  exploitation  is  only  granted  to  Russian  subjects. 
The  whole  country  east  of  Baikalia,  that  is  to  say,  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  Amur,  is  at  present  freed  from  paying  Customs 
duties,  excepting  on  spirits,  tobacco,  sugar  and  other  articles 
which  in  Russia  pay  excise  duty.  This  part  of  Siberia  is  never 
likely  to  become  attractive  to  Europeans  of  other  nationality 
than  the  Russians.  On  the  other  hand,  undoubtedly,  in  the 
course  of  time,  European  capital  will  be  much  employed  in 
this  part,  and  some  enterprising  merchants  and  engineers  may 
even  eventually  establish  themselves  in  the  country,  which  will 
surely  prove  to  its  interest,  and  not  to  its  detriment. 

Independently  of  voluntary  immigrants,  Siberia  used  to  receive 
annually  a great  number  of  political  and  other  exiles  and  convicts. 
By  a ukaz,  issued  in  1899,  Tsar  Nicholas  II.  put  a stop  to 
the  old  and  cruel  system  of  exiling  suspects  and  convicts  into 
Siberia,*  which  ought  undoubtedly  to  result  in  much  good ; 
for  when  a country  begins  to  be  thickly  peopled  with  free  im- 
migrants it  is  unwise  to  continue  to  use  it  as  a penal  settlement. 
These  exiles  may  be  divided  into  two  principal  groups  : firstly, 
political,  often  very  honest  and  amiable  people,  such  as 
students  who  have  taken  part  in  a manifestation  hostile  to 
the  Government ; Poles,  compromised  in  recent  insurrections ; 
Catholics  and  Protestants  who  have  displayed  too  much  zeal 
in  the  affirmation  of  their  religious  opinions ; and  Raskolniks, 
whose  peculiar  theological  opinions  have  already  been  described. 
The  second  category  includes  less  estimable  people ; youths 
of  good  family  of  by  no  means  irreproachable  character,  who 
have  been  sent  to  meditate  on  their  shortcomings  for  a certain 
number  of  years,  and  repent  of  their  follies  at  their  leisure  on 
the  pleasant  banks  of  the  Obi  or  the  Yenissei;  and  certain 
functionaries  of  good  family  who  have  been  guilty  of  appro- 
priating money  officially  entrusted  to  them.  Of  these  un- 

* The  Tsar  appointed  a Commission  to  inquire  into  the  whole  question 
of  transportation  to  Siberia,  with  a view  to  its  cessation.  The  Commission 
is  now  understood  to  have  reported  in  this  sense. — H.  N. 

53 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


fortunate  people,  those  who  have  been  guilty  of  minor  offences 
are  sent  to  Western  Siberia,  where  they  often  obtain  employ- 
ment as  servants  and  coachmen.  On  the  other  hand,  those 
who  have  committed  graver  offences,  and  who  have  been 
condemned  to  hard  labour,  undergo  their  punishment  in 
Eastern  Siberia,  in  Irkutsk,  Yenissei,  or  in  Trans-Baikalia,  and 
must  remain  there.  Inveterate  criminals,  murderers,  and 
escaped  galley-slaves,  are  sent  to  the  island  of  Sakhalin,  opposite 
the  mouth  of  the  Amur,  where,  even  at  the  expiration  of  their 
terms,  they  are  obliged  to  end  their  lives.  Those  political 
exiles  who  are  not  punished  for  grave  offences  are  also  relegated 
to  the  west,  where  the  climate  is  fairly  temperate.  The  graver 
the  charge  and  the  heavier  the  sentence,  the  farther  are  they 
sent  eastward,  even  to  the  icy  territories  of  Yakutsk,  Verk- 
hoyansk, Nijne  Kolymsk,  and  Ust-Yansk.  To  these  regions 
are  also  relegated  the  members  of  the  strange  sect  of  Eunuchs. 
The  majority  of  these  people,  unless  indeed  they  are  very 
gravely  compromised,  after  being  obliged  to  reside  three,  or 
even  ten,  years  in  a village,  are  allowed  to  settle  in  a town,  to 
go  freely  all  over  Siberia,  and  even  at  the  expiration  of  a certain 
number  of  years  to  return  to  Russia.  They  not  infrequently 
make  themselves  extremely  useful.  Many  Poles  become  inn- 
keepers, and  I know  of  one  at  least  who  is  a Doctor  of  Law,  and 
who  speaks  excellent  French.  At  Irkutsk  one  can  get  good 
beer,  a beverage  elsewhere  execrable,  a boon  entirely  due  to 
the  enterprise  of  an  exile  from  the  Baltic  provinces.  In 
the  extreme  north  not  a few  exiles  employ  their  time  with 
scientific  and  meteorological  studies.  Here  I may  observe  that 
I have  never  seen  any  of  the  exiles  in  Siberia  ill-treated,  and 
even  the  chain  which  some  of  them  are  obliged  to  wear  did 
not  seem  to  me  very  heavy.  The  great  prison  of  Alexandrofsk, 
near  Irkutsk,  is  admirably  managed,  its  rules  being  very  mild. 
Nevertheless,  I must  confess  that  I only  visited  what  the 
officials  chose  to  show  me.  All  I can  say  is  that,  according  to 
my  experience,  if  there  are  exiles  who  are  habitually  badly 
treated,  they  must  be  very  few  in  number.  Of  course,  I can 
say  nothing  in  extenuation  of  the  system  of  transporting  a 
young  man  or  even  a young  woman  to  languish  in  a dreary 
village  buried  in  the  depths  of  a forest  or  the  Tundra,  merely 
because  they  happen  to  have  taken  an  over-prominent  part  in 
some  political  or  students’  demonstration. 

One  curious  fact  connected  with  this  system  of  Russian 

54 


SIBERIA 


transportation  is  that  the  wives  and  children  of  the  exiles  are 
often  authorized  to  follow  the  condemned  man,  which  they 
very  frequently  do,  although  in  some  cases  the  law  considers 
the  marriage  bond  annulled  by  the  mere  act  of  condemnation, 
the  unfortunate  exiles  being  considered  civilly  dead.  The 
families  of  these  poor  people  often  endure  such  terrible  priva- 
tions that  local  committees  have  been  founded,  under  the 
patronage  of  the  authorities,  to  assist  them.  In  1894,  in  the 
five  Governments  of  Tobolsk,  Tomsk,  Yenissei,  Irkutsk,  and 
Yakutsk,  15,000  exiles  and  their  families  arrived. 

In  a single  and  not  particularly  favourable  year,  the  popula- 
tion of  Siberia  was  increased  by  about  85,000  persons,  of  whom 
about  66,495  were  free  immigrants.  The  natural  increase  was 
almost  equally  great,  rising,  according  to  the  statistics,  to 
78,000,  exclusive  of  the  Littoral  Province,  which,  if  taken  into 
account,  ought  to  raise  the  population  by  80,000.  On  a popu- 
lation which  we  may  estimate  at  5,300,000  at  this  period,  there 
must  have  been  about  250,000  births,  that  is  47'5  per  1,000, 
and  172,000  deaths,  or  3 2 ’4  per  1,000.  The  birth-rate,  there- 
fore, is  exceedingly  high,  and  the  death-rate,  when  the  condi- 
tions of  the  country  are  considered,  certainly  not  abnormal.  In 
1898  the  immigration,  owing  to  the  opening  of  the  railway,  was 
greatly  increased,  to  the  extent  even  of  200,000  souls.  It  is 
not  therefore  a lack  of  population  which  is  ever  likely  to  affect 
the  future  of  Siberia.  The  natural  resources  of  the  country 
can  be  justly  compared  with  Canada,  which  it  exceeds  in  size, 
and  also,  to  a slight  extent,  in  population  ; but  the  difference 
between  the  two  countries,  in  point  of  economic  development, 
is  very  great.  What  is  wanted  in  Siberia  is  less  the  creation 
of  a great  number  of  complex  industries,  for  which  the  country 
is  not  yet  ripe,  than  the  introduction,  as  already  stated  else- 
where, of  up-to-date  methods  of  exploiting  the  natural  resources 
of  the  country,  which  can  only  be  borrowed  from  foreign 
countries,  and  it  will  only  be  by  opening  wide  its  doors  and  by 
receiving  strangers  without  jealousy  or  unwarranted  suspicion 
that  Russia  will  ever  be  able  to  obtain  from  her  gigantic  enter- 
prise in  Trans-Siberia  a return  worthy  of  the  great  wealth  of  a 
country  which  must  eventually  be  placed  on  the  same  footing 
as  any  other  in  point  of  civilization  and  progress. 


55 


CHAPTER  VIII 


MEANS  OF  COMMUNICATION  IN  SIBERIA 

Absolute  insufficiency  of  the  present  means  of  transport — Coaches  and 
sleighs — The  tarantass : price,  length  and  conditions  of  travelling  by 
this  means  of  locomotion — Navigation — Scheme  for  penetrating  into 
Siberia  by  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  its  recent  success — Absolute  necessity 
of  more  railways. 

In  order  to  form  a fair  idea  of  the  revolution  which  the  Trans- 
Siberian  Railway  is  likely  to  bring  about  in  the  economical  and 
political  conditions  of  Northern  Asia,  it  will  be  as  well  to  glance 
at  the  actual  conditions  of  the  present  means  of  travel  and 
transport  in  the  country.  The  most  rapid  means  of  locomo- 
tion at  the  disposal  of  travellers  only  yesterday,  as  it  were,  was 
in  summer  the  stage-coach,  and  in  winter  the  sleigh.  Twenty 
years  ago,  to  go  to  Vladivostok  (6,000  miles  distant)  the 
traveller  took  the  coach  at  Kazan,  on  the  Volga,  the  journey 
occupying  not  less  than  two  months  in  the  more  favourable 
season,  when  a coat  of  snow,  as  solid  as  marble  and  as  smooth 
as  velvet,  replaces  the  usual  mud  and  slush  on  the  Siberian 
roads.  Later  on,  with  the  progress  of  navigation  and  the  con- 
struction of  a railway  across  the  Urals,  the  starting-point  for 
this  journey  was  removed  further  on  to  the  most  eastern  point 
touched  by  the  steamboats,  in  the  basin  of  the  Obi  at  Tomsk. 
In  summer  this  route  shortened  the  journey  via  Krasnoyarsk, 
Irkutsk,  and  Chita  about  1,875  miles,  at  the  end  of  which  one 
reached  the  Amur,  where  navigation  recommenced.  Since 
1896  the  Trans-Siberian  has  passed  Tomsk,  and  now  the 
starting-point  of  the  road  journey  has  gone  gradually  farther 
afield,  and  is  now  daily  receding  more  to  the  east. 

In  the  summer  of  1897  the  railway  had  already  reached  the 
little  town  of  Kansk,  about  160  miles  beyond  the  Yenissei,  and 
it  was  here,  or  at  the  Kluchi  station,  some  65  miles  further  on, 

56 


SIBERIA 


that  one  hired  a coach.  It  is,  however,  wiser  to  buy  one’s 
tarantass,  in  order  to  avoid  the  trouble  of  unloading  luggage 
at  each  stage,  and,  again,  the  coaches  hired  out  by  the  post- 
masters are  much  less  comfortable. 

The  station-master  at  Kluchi,  to  whom  I had  been  re- 
commended, like  many  other  subordinate  officials  in  Siberia, 
was  an  exile,  who  in  better  days  had  been  a captain  in  the 
artillery,  and,  moreover,  the  cashier  of  his  regiment.  One  fine 
day,  in  a fit  of  over-generosity,  he  unluckily  lent  a sum  of 
money,  abstracted  from  the  cash-box,  to  a comrade  who  had 
lost  very  considerably  at  the  gaming-tables.  Fate  avenged  the 
regiment  in  the  shape  of  an  inspector,  who  inopportunely 
arrived  upon  the  scene,  examined  into  affairs,  and  forthwith 
ended  the  military  career  of  the  unlucky  officer.  After  four- 
teen 5 ears’  exile  in  Siberia  this  indiscriminately  good-natured 
individual  has  become  chief  inspector  of  a little  railway-station, 
and  adds  to  his  small  income  by  letting  out  tarantasses  to 
travellers.  He  sold  me  for  ;^i8  the  best  of  his  vehicles, 
which,  I was  assured,  had  recently  been  used  by  a distinguished 
official,  but,  nevertheless,  I had  to  get  rid  of  it,  when  I took 
the  steamer  on  the  Amur  two  months  later,  for  about 

Jules  Verne,  in  ‘ Michael  Strogoff,’  has  introduced  and 
popularized  the  tarantass.  It  is  a vehicle  without  springs,  with 
a body  about  six  feet  long,  like  a trough  suppoited  on  three 
broad  planks  of  wood,  and  mounted  upon  two  very  low 
axles  nine  to  ten  feet  apart.  An  immense  hood  protects 
the  back  part  of  the  carriage  from  the  rain,  and  by  button- 
ing the  leathern  apron  fixed  to  the  front,  one  can  keep 
one’s  self  almost  hermetically  screened  from  the  weather. 
The  tarantass,  if  it  is  not  particularly  comfortable,  has  the 
advantage  of  being  very  strong.  It  possesses  nothing  in  the 
shape  of  a seat,  and  one  is  obliged  to  lie  full-length  on  a litter 
of  hay  or  upon  the  luggage,  unless,  indeed,  from  time  to  time, 
in  order  to  change  position,  one  cares  to  sit  on  the  edge  of 
the  vehicle  or  else  alongside  the  coachman.  The  horses  are 
supplied  by  the  postmasters  at  the  rate  of  three  copecks,  or 
three  farthings,  per  verst  for  each  horse,  and,  moreover,  one  has 
to  pay  a fixed  tax  of  about  fivepence  per  horse  at  each  relay. 
The  team  consists  usually  of  three  horses,  and  the  relays  are 
found  at  a distance  of  about  sixteen  miles  apart.  The  ex- 
penses, therefore,  for  this  short  distance  amount  to  about  five 
shillings,  inclusive  of  a tip  to  the  coachman,  so  that  there 

57 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


is  not  much  to  complain  of  in  that  respect.  The  same  tarifi 
applies  in  winter,  but  in  the  intermediary  seasons,  from 
March  5 to  May  15,  and  from  September  15  to  December  i, 
when  the  thaw  sets  in  and  the  roads  are  very  heavy,  a 
fourth  horse  is  needed,  and  the  expense  is  increased  about 
one  quarter.  I used  frequently  to  ask  Siberians  how  many 
miles  could  be  performed  in  this  sort  of  vehicle.  Of  course, 
almost  everybody  gave  me  a different  answer.  One  high 
official  in  Tomsk  informed  me  that  it  could  undertake  as 
many  as  400  versts  in  twenty-four  hours.  ‘ Do  not  imagine 
you  can  go  more  than  from  sixty-five  to  eighty,’  said  the 
station-master,  and  as  it  was  he  who  had  sold  me  my  tarantass, 
I came  to  the  conclusion  that  his  rather  dismal  prognostic  was 
the  true  one.  As  a matter  of  fact,  everything  depends  upon 
the  condition  of  the  roads,  and  also  as  to  whether  the  traveller 
has  supplied  himself  with  a podorojne,  an  official  document 
usually  granted  to  Imperial  couriers  and  to  high  officials,  and 
which  enables  its  possessor  to  avoid  being  detained  at  the 
various  stations  on  the  road.  Fortunately,  as  I had  one  of 
these  documents,  I was  able  to  make  between  90  and  120 
miles  in  twenty-four  hours. 

I cannot  describe  the  scenery  by  the  way  as  particularly 
interesting.  The  road  cuts  through  the  forests  of  pines  and 
larches,  and  is,  as  a rule,  fairly  well  kept,  and  about  as  broad 
as  the  best  of  our  national  routes  in  France.  From  time  to 
time  the  wall  of  verdure  opens  out  to  give  way  to  a clearing, 
along  which  one  perceives  rows  of  wooden  houses,  indicating 
the  existence  of  some  village  or  other,  the  name  of  which  is 
printed  on  a post,  that  also  supplies  information  as  to  the 
number  of  inhabitants  of  each  sex.  One  soon  gets  tired  of  the 
beauty  of  the  trees,  and,  to  be  truthful,  also  of  the  rather 
monotonous  convoys  of  telegas  loaded  with  merchandise, 
waggons  with  gold,  escorted  by  soldiers,  and  of  the  inter- 
minable caravans  of  emigrants.  As  one  passes  the  Baikal  the 
road  becomes  less  and  less  frequented,  and  more  and  more 
monotonous  and  dreary,  especially  in  the  dismal  steppe,  with 
its  stunted  growth,  through  which  flows  the  Vitim,  an  affluent  of 
the  Lena.  The  road  now  meanders  through  marshy  prairies, 
and  is  merely  indicated  by  the  line  of  gray  telegraph-posts 
stretching  off  towards  the  horizon. 

In  order  to  break  the  intolerable  monotony  of  these  very 
long  journeys,  it  is  usual  to  invite  one  or  two  other  travellers 


SIBERIA 


to  share  expenses,  and  these  are  not  difficult  to  find,  for  the 
Russians  are  naturally  sociable  and  quite  free  from  stiffness  or 
conventionality.  I was  rather  surprised  on  one  occasion  to 
find  the  wife  of  an  official  in  Trans-Baikalia  who,  to  join  her 
husband,  had  performed  the  journey  from  Vladikavkaz,  4,000 
miles  by  rail  and  1,000  miles  by  road,  in  the  company  of  an 
officer  with  whom  she  was  only  slightly  acquainted.  The 
Russians  were  not  more  astonished  at  this  than  Americans 
would  have  been.  The  general  insecurity  of  the  country  is 
probably  responsible  for  the  ease  with  which  people  make 
acquaintances.  Those  who  like  to  deal  in  horrors  are  by  no 
means  behindhand  in  relating  appalling  stories  of  travellers 
who  have  been  waylaid  by  escaped  convicts  and  murdered  in 
the  heart  of  the  forest.  ‘ Have  you  your  revolvers  ?’  asked  the 
postmaster,  on  the  evening  of  my  first  journey  in  my  tarantass, 
and  just  as  we  were  about  to  start.  ‘ Three  travellers  were 
assassinated  on  this  relay  only  fifteen  days  ago,’  continued  he, 
and  then  he  gave  us  a horribly  detailed  account  of  the  cir- 
cumstances. I had  no  revolver  with  me,  and  never  had  any 
reason  to  need  one,  and  I rather  doubted  the  authenticity  of 
these  gruesome  stories.  The  real  danger  which  travellers  in 
Siberia  have  to  encounter  is  that  of  having  the  rope  which 
attaches  their  luggage  to  the  back  of  the  tarantass  artfully  cut 
and  their  portmanteaus  carried  off.  Accidents  are  rare,  as  the 
tarantass  is  generally  very  strongly  built.  It  is  somewhat 
alarming,  however,  when  at  the  head  of  a steep  incline,  to 
watch  the  coachman  exciting  his  horses  into  a gallop  by  the 
wildest  gesticulations,  but  one  soon  learns  that  the  danger  in 
this  case  is  merely  apparent. 

Considerable  patience  is  certainly  needed  on  these  Siberian 
journeys,  for  the  roads  are  often  appallingly  bad,  especially 
when  the  inundations  set  in  after  a thaw,  when  even  the 
bridges  are  carried  off  by  the  torrents.  Then,  again,  what  is 
particularly  exasperating  is  the  passive  air  of  resignation 
assumed  by  all  concerned,  postmaster  and  coachman,  and 
even  by  one’s  travelling  companions.  Accustomed  as  these 
people  are  to  live  in  a climate  in  which  the  forces  of  Nature 
defy  the  ingenuity  of  man,  they  are  very  apt,  especially  as  they 
have  nothing  on  earth  else  to  do,  to  shrug  their  shoulders  at 
the  inevitable,  and  to  avoid  with  supreme  skill  troubling 
themselves  about  the  ways  and  means  of  bettering  things.  I 
remember  on  one  occasion,  after  having  been  assured  at 

59 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


Kiakhta  and  Chita  that  if  I persisted  in  continuing  my  journey 
I was  exposing  my  life,  being  landed  in  a ford  into  which  one 
of  the  wheels  of  the  tarantass  stuck.  To  extricate  it,  we  had 
to  work  for  over  an  hour  in  the  cold  water  and  in  the  dim 
dawn,  and  even  then  we  were  only  able  to  do  so  with  the  help 
of  two  Buriats  who  were  passing  that  way,  and  who  lent  us 
their  horses  to  assist  us  in  getting  out  of  this  unpleasant  fix. 
With  the  sole  exception  of  this  mishap  I had  very  little  to 
complain  of.  It  is  in  the  post-stations,  however,  that  one’s 
patience  is  put  to  the  test  and  that  one  realizes  the  force  of  a 
truism  made  by  a certain  English  author,  who  began  a book 
on  Siberia  with  the  following  singular  aphorism  : ‘ In  Siberia 
time  is  not  money.’  One  crosses  the  threshold  of  these  rather 
doleful-looking  houses,  which  become  more  and  more  lugubrious 
as  one  advances  eastward,  with  a feeling  akin  to  dread. 

The  postmaster  is  almost  invariably  to  be  found  seated  in 
front  of  a very  dirty  register,  and  generally  grunts  out  his 
answers  to  your  inquiries  as  to  whether  he  has  any  horses 
ready,  ‘ You  will  have  to  wait  two  or  three  hours,  possibly  until 
the  next  morning,’  after  which  pleasant  piece  of  information 
you  pass  into  the  common  waiting  room,  usually  furnished 
with  a few  chairs,  two  or  three  tables  and  one  or  two  old  sofas. 
On  the  wall  hang  an  ikon  or  so,  the  inevitable  portraits  of  their 
Majesties,  and  a few  frames  with  the  usual  printed  instructions 
and  regulations.  Then  comes  a sort  of  glorified  bill-of-fare, 
from  a perusal  of  which  you  learn  the  names  of  a number  of 
succulent  dishes,  but,  unfortunately,  the  last  line  informs  you 
that  the  postmaster  is  only  obliged  to  supply  you  with  black 
bread  and  hot  water,  the  last  article  being  intended  to  make 
tea,  with  which,  together  with  sugar,  every  traveller  supplies 
himself  before  starting.  Nearly  always,  however,  one  finds 
excellent  eggs  and  milk.  It  is  wise  in  travelling  in  Trans- 
Baikalia  to  take  a supply  of  preserves,  which  you  can  procure 
in  any  large  Siberian  town. 

The  travellers,  however,  whom  one  meets  in  these  resorts 
are  generally  exceedingly  friendly,  very  willing  and  even  eager 
to  share  their  provisions.  Seated  round  the  great  copper 
samovar,  conversation  becomes  cordial  and  intimate,  everybody 
calling  each  other,  regardless  of  age  or  sex,  by  their  Christian 
names,  ‘ Nicholas  Petrovitch,’  ‘ Paul  Ivanovitch,’  ‘ Elisabeth 
Alexandrovna,’  and  so  forth.  Constantly,  when  on  the  journey, 
one  often  falls  in  with  the  same  people,  and  thus  acquaint- 

6o 


SIBERIA 


ance  soon  ripens  into  intimacy.  But,  although  these  gatherings 
round  the  samovar  are  very  agreeable,  and  enable  one  to  study 
the  pleasanter  qualities  of  the  Russian  people,  it  is  not  advisable 
to  pass  the  night  in  any  of  the  hostelries  along  the  road,  for  all 
the  insecticide  powders  ever  invented  will  not  insure  a quiet 
night. 

However  interesting,  therefore,  a cross-country  journey 
through  Siberia  may  be,  it  is  not  exactly  of  the  kind  one  would 
recommend  for  a pleasure  trip,  although  many  Russian  ladies, 
even  of  the  highest  rank,  frequently  undertake  it,  but  I do  not 
recommend  it  to  delicate  people.  When  supplied  with  a 
podorojne  and  the  weather  is  fine  the  journey  is  pleasant 
enough,  but  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  it  takes  seven  weeks 
to  go  from  the  Ural  to  Vladivostok.  In  winter  the  journey  by 
sleigh  from  the  Volga  takes  two  months,  but  if  it  takes  so  long 
for  a traveller,  what  must  it  be  for  merchandise  ! Commerce, 
therefore,  on  account  of  the  backward  condition  of  the  land- 
routes,  is  obliged  in  Siberia  to  make  use  of  the  splendid  water- 
courses, but  even  these  are  paralyzed  during  seven  months  of 
the  year  by  thick  coatings  of  ice,  and,  what  is  still  worse,  they 
all  flow  towards  an  ocean  eternally  blocked  by  icebergs. 

Recently  some  very  hardy  experiments,  crowned  so  far  with 
partial  success,  have  been  made  to  penetrate  to  the  heart  of 
Siberia  by  the  Polar  Sea  when  navigation  is  free  during  certain 
weeks  of  the  year.  It  will  be  remembered  that  it  was  by  the 
White  Sea  that  European  commerce,  represented  by  an 
Englishman  named  Chancellor,  first  entered  Russia  in  the 
sixteenth  century.  It  is  therefore  not  to  be  wondered  at  that 
attempts  have  been  made  to  penetrate  into  Siberia  by  the 
mouths  of  the  Obi  and  the  Yenissei,  which  are  situated  at  no 
greater  distance  than  i,ooo  to  1,200  miles  from  the  northern- 
most part  of  Norway,  where  the  sea  is  always  free  from  ice. 
M.  Sidorov,  a Russian  gentleman  of  ample  fortune,  in  the 
middle  of  the  present  century,  devoted  himself  to  carrying 
out  this  scheme,  and  notwithstanding  that  he  was  dis- 
couraged by  the  leading  scientists  of  the  day,  who  considered 
it  impracticable,  he  promised  a very  ample  reward  to  the 
captain  of  the  first  ship  which  should  enter  the  Yenissei.  Two 
expeditions,  attempted  in  1862  and  1869,  failed;  but  in  1874 
an  Englishman  named  Wiggins,  captain  of  the  Diana,  suc- 
ceeded in  passing  the  Straits  of  Kara,  which  separate  Novaya 
Zemlya  from  the  continent,  on  the  frontiers  of  Europe  and 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 

Asia,  and  thus  was  able  to  effect  a passage  into  the  estuary  of 
the  Yenissei.  More  successful  attempts  were  made  in  the 
following  years,  and  in  1878  iron,  groceries,  machinery,  and 
other  articles,  were  landed  at  the  mouths  of  the  Obi  and  the 
Yenissei.  In  1887  an  English  company  was  formed  to  carry 
on  a regular  service  at  the  close  of  each  summer  between 
England  and  the  North  of  Siberia,  but  unfortunately  the  first 
year  was  not  successful,  the  goods  not  being  of  a profitable 
character.  On  the  succeeding  voyage  the  vessel  could  not  pass 
the  Straits  of  Kara,  and  had  to  return  home.  Subsequently  a 
new  company  was  formed,  but  with  disastrous  results.  These 
ineffectual  attempts,  however,  did  not  discourage  the  English, 
and  the  scheme  for  navigating  the  Arctic  Ocean  was  reassumed 
on  a larger  basis  in  1896,  when  three  steamers  entered  the 
Yenissei  and  ascended  that  river  to  Turukhansk,  about  600 
miles  from  its  estuary,  where  their  goods  were  transferred  to 
large  barges  and  conveyed  to  Krasnoyarsk.  The  merchandise, 
which  included  seven  steam-engines,  was  sold  for  a fair  profit. 
This  English  company  has  now  installed  an  agency  at  Krasno- 
yarsk, and  the  Russian  Government,  in  consideration  of  the 
great  services  which  it  has  rendered  at  great  risk  in  attempting 
to  create  a regular  service  through  the  Arctic  Ocean  into 
Western  and  Central  Siberia,  has  reduced  the  customs  duties 
on  all  goods  introduced  by  it  by  one  half,  and  indeed  has 
completely  abandoned  its  claims  on  a number  of  articles  such 
as  grocery  and  machinery.  Moreover,  so  pleased  has  the 
Russian  Government  been  by  this  courageous  attempt  that  it 
has  granted  some  very  valuable  mining  concessions  on  this 
river.  In  1897  si.x  English  steamers  returned  to  Turukhansk, 
and  quite  a fleet  of  them  was  directed  to  the  mouth  of  the  Obi, 
hitherto  somevvhat  neglected  on  account  of  the  shallowness  of 
the  water.  Moreover,  an  attempt  has  recently  been  made  to 
create  an  export  trade  between  Siberia  and  England,  and  a 
cargo  of  corn  brought  by  the  company’s  barges  to  the  point 
where  their  ships  are  anchored  was  soon  afterwards  happily 
transported  to  Europe.  In  1898  the  same  company  met  with 
identical  success.  Thus  far  this  enterprise  has  been  very 
fortunate.  Needless  to  say,  the  Kara  Sea  and  the  straits  which 
border  upon  it  are,  up  to  the  beginning  of  August,  blocked  with 
ice,  concentrated  there  by  the  different  currents,  and  the 
season  during  which  navigation  is  possible  lasts  only  from  six 
weeks  to  two  months,  between  August  and  September.  The 

62 


SIBERIA 


ships  used  in  this  particular  service  must  leave  Europe  a little 
beforehand,  so  as  to  await  at  the  Straits  of  Kara  a favourable 
opportunity  to  penetrate  to  the  mouth  of  the  rivers,  ascend 
them,  discharge  and  recharge,  and  start  again  as  quickly  as 
possible.  The  time  is  exceedingly  limited  during  which  the 
barges  can  transport  their  cargoes  into  the  interior  and  re- 
ascend the  Siberian  rivers  ere  these  are  frozen  over,  and  this 
especially  is  the  case  on  the  Yenissei,  whose  currents,  even  at 
Krasnoyarsk,  are  not  more  than  six  miles  an  hour,  attaining,  how- 
ever, twelve  miles  between  Krasnoyarsk  and  Yenissei.  There- 
fore it  is  impossible  to  perform  more  than  seventy  to  eighty 
miles  a day,  and  it  must  be  remembered  that  between  Turuk- 
hansk  and  Krasnoyarsk  the  distance  is  about  i,ooo  miles,  and 
that  in  the  beginning  of  October  navigation  is  suspended. 
Under  these  conditions  it  is  not  likely  that  more  than  one 
service  a year  can  ever  be  organized,  although  possibly,  when 
the  peculiarities  of  the  icy  regions  of  the  Kara  Sea  are  better 
known,  it  might  be  otherwise.  It  should  also  be  mentioned 
that  the  vessels  engaged  in  this  particular  trade  have  not  been 
built  expressly  for  it,  but  are  ordinary  cargo-boats,  which  can 
be  engaged  during  the  rest  of  the  year  trading  in  pleasanter 
climes.  If  the  present  company  establishes  itself  definitely  it 
will  be  extremely  fortunate,  not  only  for  the  town  of  Krasno- 
yarsk, but  for  the  whole  of  Siberia,  which  will  thus  be  able 
to  export,  by  a very  cheap  route,  the  excess  of  its  harvests  and 
perhaps  also  some  of  its  superb  wood,  and  receive  in  exchange 
from  Western  Europe  manufactured  articles  and  machinery, 
hitherto  exclusively  supplied  from  Moscow.  Therefore  the 
opening  of  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway,  combined  with  the 
passage  of  navigation  through  the  Arctic  Sea,  will  necessarily 
benefit  Asiatic  Russia  very  considerably,  and  help  that  country 
to  obtain  freer  communication  with  the  rest  of  the  world, 
and  thereby  enable  it  eventually  to  become  completely 
modernized. 


63 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE  TRANS-SIBERIAN  RAILWAY 

Origin  of  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway — At  first  considered  only  from  the 
strategic  and  political  point  of  view — Completion  of  the  Ural  Railway 
— Project  of  utilizing  the  navigable  routes  to  unite  Russia  to  the 
Amur — Difficulties  encountered  owing  to  the  severity  of  the  climate — 
Alexander  III.  in  1891  decides  to  lay  a line  between  the  Ural  and  the 
Pacific,  and  determines  the  conditions  of  its  construction — The  various 
sections  of  the  line  and  its  deviations  across  Manchuria — Condition  of 
the  works  in  1892,  and  the  speed  with  which  it  has  been  constructed 
— Russia  now  possesses  (19CK3)  a line  of  mixed  communication  by 
train  and  boat  passing  from  the  Ural  to  the  Pacific,  and  in  1904  a 
complete  line  will  pass  directly  from  the  Ural  to  Port  Arthur,  a 
distance  of  over  4,130  miles — The  monster  ferry- boats  in  course  of 
construction  to  convey  passengers  across  Lake  Baikal — The  success  of 
the  enterprise. 

The  idea  of  making  an  overland  road  from  Russia  to  the  Far 
East  and  the  Pacific  probably  germinated  in  the  fertile  brain  of 
Voltaire,  who,  in  a letter  to  Count  Schuvarof,  dated  Ferney, 
June  II,  1761,  said  ‘ that  it  ought  to  be  possible  to  travel  from 
Russia  direct  to  China  without  having  to  cross  any  considerable 
mountain-pass,  just  as  one  can  go  from  St.  Petersburg  to  Paris 
without  leaving  the  plain.’  The  matter  was  even  more 
practically  defined,  nearer  our  own  time,  by  Count  Mouravief- 
Amurski,  who,  after  he  had  annexed  the  province  of  the  Amur 
to  Russia,  favoured  the  idea  of  building  a Trans-Siberian  rail- 
way, and,  in  the  meantime,  encouraged  the  creation  of  a postal 
high-road  from  the  Urals  to  the  Amur,  which,  he  considered, 
would  greatly  strengthen  Russian  prestige  on  the  shores  of  the 
Pacific. 

The  Trans-Siberian  Railway,  it  may  be  remarked,  was  not 
originally  designed  merely  in  the  interests  of  Siberia,  but  as  a 
means  of  uniting  Europe  with  the  rich  countries  of  the  Far 

64 


SIBERIA 


East,  in  such  a manner  as  to  avoid  the  necessity  of  passing  any 
length  of  time  in  the  rude  and  sparsely-peopled  intermediary 
territories.  Even  after  the  project  was  definitely  accepted  by 
Alexander  III.,  the  political  and  strategical  considerations  of 
the  problem  were  deemed  of  far  greater  importance  than  the 
commercial ; but  presently  it  transpired  that  Siberia  was  not 
quite  the  forlorn  country  hitherto  imagined,  but  that  it  pos 
sessed  certain  resources  of  great  value,  which  might  easily  be 
developed,  provided  rapid  communication  with  the  rest  of  the 
empire  was  organized. 

The  first  step  in  the  right  direction  was  the  construction  of 
the  Ural  Railway,  opened  in  1880,  which  united  Perm  on  the 
Kama  with  Tiumen  on  the  Tobol,  a river  flowing  into  the 
Irtysh.  The  increasing  necessity  of  developing  the  important 
gold  and  iron  mines  in  the  Urals  was  doubtless  the  principal 
motive  why  this  line  was  completed ; but  presently  it  proved 
to  be  of  vast  importance  to  the  rest  of  Siberia,  since,  by 
combining  the  river  with  the  land  routes,  it  became  possible, 
at  least  during  five  or  six  months  of  the  year,  to  reach  Tomsk 
in  a relatively  short  period. 

At  that  time  it  was  thought  the  opening  of  this  trunk  line 
would  be  detrimental  to  the  scheme  of  a complete  Trans-Siberian 
railway,  for  once  the  junction  of  the  navigable  tributaries  of 
the  Obi  with  those  of  the  Volga  was  accomplished,  it  was 
deemed  desirable  to  connect  Russia  with  its  possessions  in  the 
Far  East  by  uniting  in  the  same  manner  the  basin  of  the  Obi 
with  that  of  the  Yenissei,  and  finally  the  latter  with  the  affluents 
of  the  Amur,  and  so  with  the  Pacific.  A railway  from  the  Obi 
to  the  Yenissei  was  not  thought  necessary,  a canal  being  all 
that  was  required.  In  1882,  therefore,  the  construction  of  a 
canal  was  undertaken  between  the  Ket,  a tributary  of  the  Obi, 
and  the  Kass,  an  affluent  of  the  Yenissei,  the  distance  not 
being  more  than  126  miles.  The  canal  in  question,  which 
traverses  a series  of  virgin  forests,  when  completed,  un- 
fortunately, however,  did  not  realize  expectation.  To  the  east 
of  the  Yenissei  its  promoters  encountered  formidable  obstacles 
from  the  ice  and  from  the  numerous  rapids  that  disturb  the 
current  of  the  Angara,  and  all  attempts  to  ascend  that  river 
have  hitherto  failed. 

Notwithstanding  these  difficulties,  the  enterprising  engineers 
hoped  to  the  last  to  be  able  to  modify  some  of  them,  but  have 
not  succeeded  in  so  doing.  Thus,  it  soon  became  evident 

65  F 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


that  if  any  practical  means  of  communication  was  to  exist 
between  Russia  and  the  Pacific,  it  could  only  be  by  some 
method  independent  of  climatic  irregularity.  The  late  Tsar, 
Alexander  III.,  »ery  readily  understood  that  the  mixed  rail 
and  river  system,  with  its  many  inconveniences  of  loading  and 
unloading,  and  its  ice  blockades,  was,  comparatively  speaking, 
useless.  Hence  the  great  encouragement  and  assistance  which 
his  Imperial  Majesty  gave  to  the  creation  of  the  Trans-Siberian 
Railway,  in  which  he  took  the  deepest  interest,  being  quite  of 
opinion  that  its  completion  was  of  vital  importance  to  the 
improvement  and  well-being  of  an  immense  section  of  his 
Empire.  In  less  than  eight  years  from  the  day  he  signed  the 
Imperial  decree  authorizing  its  immediate  execution  trains 
began  to  run  over  3,300  miles,  uniting  the  upper  region  of  the 
Amur  with  Europe  and  the  lower  section  of  that  river  with  the 
Pacific.  Without  entering  into  further  particulars  of  the 
various  routes  proposed  and  subsequently  given  up,  suffice  it  to 
say  that  at  present  the  excellent  idea  of  creating  a line  running 
along  the  shores  of  Lake  Baikal  from  Irkutsk  to  Misofsk  has 
been  temporarily  abandoned,  and  that  a short  line  of  forty-four 
miles  between  Irkutsk  and  Listvenitchnaya  now  runs  to  the 
western  shores  of  that  lake,  where  the  trains  will  ere  long  be 
shunted  directly  on  board  ferry-boats  built  on  the  well-known 
American  system,  and  thus  travellers  will  be  able  to  continue 
their  journey  to  the  Far  East  without  leaving  the  train. 

The  Trans-Siberian  Railway  between  Cheliabinsk  and  Vladi- 
vostok now  includes  a main  line  some  4,125  miles  in  length, 
plus  two  branch  lines,  one  104  miles  and  the  other  410  miles 
in  length,  which  unite  with  the  Upper  and  Lower  Amur. 

The  Western  Siberian  Railway  was  finished  in  1895;  the 
Central  Siberian  and  the  section  between  Irkutsk  and  Baikal 
in  1898.  Trains  can  now  run  over  2,152  miles  of  rail.  The 
478  miles  of  the  Ussuri  line,  of  which  67  miles  belong  to  the  trunk 
line,  were  not  opened  until  1897.  The  many  difficulties  of  the 
Trans-Baikalian  line,  which  somewhat  retarded  its  completion, 
having  been  overcome,  it  was  inaugurated  quite  recently, 
whereby  2,814  miles  out  of  the  total  4,125  miles  were  rendered 
free  for  traffic.  The  line  to  Ussuri  was  finished  three  years 
ago,  and  the  rail  having  been  laid  between  Onon  and  Stretensk, 
the  Russians  have  now  (1900)  a complete  land  and  river  system 
of  intercommunication  to  the  Pacific. 

For  some  years  pasta  number  of  Russian  officers  and  engineers 

66 


SIBERIA 


have  been  quietly  exploring  Manchuria,  with  very  interesting 
results.  In  1895  the  Chinese  Government,  after  the  Chino- 
Japanese  War,  accorded,  as  a token  of  gratitude  to  Russia  for 
her  share  in  the  combined  intervention  with  France  and 
Germany  in  her  favour,  the  privilege  to  build  a railway  through 
this  important  province,  and,  moreover,  to  occupy  the  country 
during  its  construction,  the  better  to  protect  both  works  and 
workmen.  This  circumstance  brought  about  a great  modifi- 
cation in  the  original  route  of  the  Trans-Siberian  line.  The 
section  in  the  Amur  from  Stretensk  to  Khabarofsk  was 
abandoned  and  replaced  by  a Trans -Manchurian  Railway 
which  leaves  the  station  at  Onon,  104  miles  east  of  Stretensk, 
to  rejoin  the  original  line  at  Nikolsk,  about  67  miles  from 
Vladivostok,  and  thus  has  a mixed  route  of  rail  and  river  been 
created  which  brings  Europe  and  the  Pacific  into  direct 
communication  during  the  summer  months.  The  train  now 
conveys  travellers  from  the  Ural  to  Stretensk ; thence  by  boat 
to  Khabarofsk,  whence  the  line  continues  uninterruptedly  to 
Vladivostok.  As  to  the  great  Manchurian  line,  it  cannot  be 
completed,  even  according  to  the  letter  of  the  concession,  before 
1904,  so  numerous  and  so  very  great  are  the  natural  and  other 
obstacles  which  have  to  be  overcome.  A notable  modifica- 
tion has,  however,  already  been  made  in  the  original  plan. 
Vladivostok  is  now  no  longer  to  be  the  main  terminus,  which  will 
be  transferred  to  Port  Arthur,  530  miles  further  south.  The 
advantages  to  commerce  to  be  derived  from  this  project  will 
doubtless  soon  and  amply  compensate  for  the  extra  labour  and 
expense. 

The  great  difficulties  of  constructing  the  Trans-Siberian 
Railway  were  mainly  due  to  its  abnormal  length.  Whereas 
the  Americans  had  only  2,000  miles  to  cut  in  creating  their 
line  between  the  Mississipi  and  the  Pacific,  the  Russians  thirty 
years  later  had  to  lay  down  more  than  4,000  miles  of  rail  in 
order  to  reach  the  same  ocean  from  the  Ural.  Otherwise 
their  difficulties  were  very  much  less  formidable  than  those 
which  at  times  nearly  baffled  even  the  ingenuity  of  the 
Americans.  Happily  there  are  no  Rocky  Mountains  or  Sierra 
Nevada  in  Siberia  to  traverse  at  a great  height,  but  only 
comparatively  low  ranges  like  the  Yablonovoi,  or  ‘ Apple-Tree 
Mountains,’  so  called  from  their  rather  dumpy  shapes.  Then, 
again,  although  Siberia  is  at  present  not  more  densely  inhabited 
than  was  the  Far  West  from  i860  to  1870,  it  contains  no  such 

67  F 2 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


desolate  regions  as  the  plateaus  of  Utah  and  Nevada.  It  may, 
therefore,  be  safely  affirmed  that  from  the  engineering  point  of 
view  the  task  was  a comparatively  easy  one,  although  the  line 
has  to  pass  over  an  exceedingly  varied  country  after  leaving  the 
Ural,  and  through  interminable  plains,  to  reach  the  undulating 
regions  between  the  Obi  and  the  Yenissei,  where  it  ascends 
a chain  of  hills  at  an  altitude  of  not  less  than  2,000  feet  on  the 
road  from  the  Yenissei  to  Irkutsk.  On  the  eastern  shore  of 
the  Baikal  the  railway  gradually  ascends  to  an  altitude  of  not 
less  than  3,500  feet  above  the  level  of  the  water,  whence  it 
descends  in  rapid  zig-zag  into  the  valleys  of  the  Ingoda  and 
the  Chilka,  cuts  the  abrupt  spurs  of  some  very  high  mountains, 
and  passes  into  marsh-lands  where,  by  the  way,  the  engineers 
have  had  to  overcome  their  greatest  obstruction,  mainly  due 
to  the  unstable  condition  of  the  soil.  When,  therefore,  we  take 
into  consideration  that  between  the  Amur  and  the  Ural  there 
is  not  a single  tunnel,  we  may  safely  conclude  that,  if  it  were 
not  for  its  enormous  length,  this  now  famous  line  has  not  been 
from  the  engineering  point  of  view  as  arduous  an  undertaking 
even  as  have  been,  for  instance,  some  of  the  much  shorter 
lines  nearer  home,  across  the  Alps  and  the  Cevennes. 

The  bridges,  on  the  other  hand,  are  very  remarkable  and 
numerous,  and  some  of  them  required  great  skill  in  their 
construction,  since  they  span  the  more  important  rivers  of 
Siberia,  which,  with  the  exception  of  those  in  the  basin  of  the 
Amur,  invariably  flow  due  north.  There  are  four  principal 
bridges,  of  which  two  cross  the  Irtysh  and  the  Obi  respectively, 
each  2,750  feet  in  length  ; the  other  two  span  the  Yenissei 
and  the  Selenga,  and  are  about  3,000  feet  in  length.  These 
four  bridges  were  exceedingly  costly,  necessitating  the  erection 
of  stone  piles  of  prodigious  strength,  capable  of  resisting  the 
shock  of  the  enormous  masses  of  floating  ice.  The  minor 
bridges,  some  of  them  700  to  900  feet  in  length,  are  very 
numerous,  but,  beyond  the  difficulty  of  fixing  them  firmly  a 
great  distance  on  either  side  of  the  rivers,  owing  to  the  marshy 
nature  of  the  soil  on  the  immediate  banks,  it  needed  no 
superlative  skill  on  the  part  of  the  engineers  who  superin- 
tended their  erection. 

Altogether  the  most  remarkable  feature  of  the  line  will  be 
the  manner  in  which  the  trains  are  eventually  to  be  transported 
across  the  Baikal,  the  largest  lake  in  Asia.  In  America  and  in 
Denmark  the  system  of  running  a train  on  to  a monster  ferry- 

68 


SIBERIA 


boat,  crossing  considerable  expanses  of  water,  has  now  been 
in  practical  use  for  many  years ; but  the  distances  hitherto 
have  never  exceeded  seventy  miles.  The  Toledo,  Ann  Harbour, 
and  Northern  Michigan  Railroad  possesses  a service  of  ferry- 
boats that  convey  the  trains  across  Lake  Michigan,  a distance 
of  about  seventy  miles.  The  Pire  Marquette^  the  biggest  ferry- 
boat in  the  world,  so-called  in  honour  of  the  celebrated  Jesuit 
missionary  and  explorer,  is  344  feet  in  length  by  54  feet  in 
width,  and  possesses  four  lines,  whereby  it  can  carry  thirty 
freight  cars  and  sixteen  very  up-to-date  passenger  corridor 
carriages.  The  difficulties  to  be  surmounted  with  respect  to 
Lake  Baikal  are  happily  less  than  those  to  be  encountered  on 
Lake  Michigan.  The  distance  from  shore  to  shore,  to  begin 
with,  is  considerably  less.  Between  Listvenitchnaya,  otherwise 
the  ‘Larches,’ to  Misofsk  is  only  forty  miles.  Notwithstanding 
the  excessive  cold,  the  Baikal  does  not  freeze  until  quite  late 
in  January,  on  account  of  its  great  depth,  4,200  feet,  of  which 
2,900  feet  are  below  the  level  of  the  sea,  forming  a prodigious 
volume  of  water  which  takes  a very  long  time  to  freeze,  and  an 
almost  equally  long  time  to  thaw,  for  its  temperature  rarely 
rises,  even  in  summer,  above  5°  C.  During  eight  months  of 
the  year  Lake  Baikal  is  free  and  navigable,  and  it  is  believed 
that  two  crossings  a day,  always  in  the  same  channel,  may 
eventually  reduce  the  thickness  of  the  ice  in  winter. 

The  building  of  these  enormous  ferry-boats  has  been  en- 
trusted to  a well-known  American  firm.*  They  are  to  be 
larger  than  the  Pire  Marquette,  and  provided  with  special 
contrivances  for  cutting  the  ice  as  they  force  their  passage 
through  it,  and  they  are,  moreover,  intended  to  go  at  the  rate 
of  thirteen  and  a half  knots  an  hour  in  free  water,  and  four 
knots  when  cutting  through  the  ice.  The  passage  will  take 
nine  hours  in  winter  and  about  two  and  a half  hours  in  summer. 
Unfortunately,  storms  are  very  sudden  and  frequent  on  Lake 
Baikal,  and,  moreover,  in  summer  travelling  is  often  impeded 
by  dense  fogs,  and  it  occasionally  happens  that  boats  are 
detained  for  hours  and  even  days  at  a time  before  they  dare 
venture  across.  It  will  certainly  be  very  unpleasant  for  the 

• The  author  is  misinformed  here.  The  Baikal,  the  great  ice-break- 
ing, train-carrying  steamer,  and  the  Angara,  a smaller  passenger- boat, 
have  both  been  designed,  constructed,  and  set  up  on  Lake  Baikal  by 
Sir  W.  G.  Armstrong,  Whitworth  and  Co.,  Ltd.,  of  Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
— H.  N. 

69 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


passengers  to  be  kept  for  many  hours  at  Listvenitchnaya  or 
Misofsk  waiting  for  the  weather  to  clear.  However,  they  can 
take  heart  of  grace ; for  not  so  very  long  ago  they  might  have 
been  detained  for  days  at  some  out-of-the-way  post-house,  in 
company  with  a regiment  of  most  unpleasant  and  unnameable 
bedfellows ! 

The  difficulties  of  obtaining  workmen  for  building  this 
railway  were  not  so  great  as  might  have  been  expected,  thanks 
to  the  nomadic  habits  of  the  Russians,  who  think  very  little  of 
leaving  their  wives  and  belongings  at  home,  and  going  hundreds, 
even  thousands,  of  miles  away  in  search  of  employment.  Then, 
again,  there  were  already  a considerable  number  of  workpeople 
to  be  obtained  on  the  line  itself ; for,  as  already  stated,  the 
population  of  Siberia  is  concentrated  on  the  old  postal-road, 
which  runs  in  many  points  parallel  to  the  railway.  Convict 
labour  was  not  greatly  used,  and  when  it  was  it  proved  un- 
satisfactory, and  was  soon  more  or  less  abandoned.  The  line, 
however,  has  taken  an  unusually  long  time  to  finish,  because 
the  only  season  during  which  w’ork  can  be  carried  on  in  Siberia 
lasts  but  six  months  ; but  this  probably  proved  attractive  to  the 
Russian  and  Asiatic  workmen,  as  it  gave  them  ample  time, 
when  the  ground  was  thickly  covered  with  snow,  to  return  to 
their  cabins  and  indulge  in  those  day-dreams  so  dear  to  them 
and  to  all  Orientals. 

It  is  difficult  to  estimate  the  exact  cost  of  the  line,  but  it 
was  at  first  reckoned  at  over  ;^4o,ooo,ooo  sterling,*  of  which 
unfortunately  a considerable  percentage  was  absolutely  wasted, 
if  not  worse.  Grave  charges  have  been  brought  against  a great 
number  of  people  in  connection  with  this  line,  and  doubtless 
with  reason  ; for  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  notions  of 
honesty  entertained  in  Asiatic  Russia  are  apt  even  now  to  be 
distinctly  Byzantine.  However,  be  this  as  it  may,  Russia  can 
be  congratulated  upon  having  completed  a brilliant  achieve- 
ment, which  no  other  nation,  except  perhaps  England  or 
America,  would  have  dared  to  undertake,  especially  in  so  short 
a time. 

* The  official  estimate  of  the  total  cost  of  the  railway  is  overj^8o,ooo,ooo, 
of  which  over  £^0,000,000  were  spent  by  the  end  of  1899. — H.  N. 


70 


CHAPTER  X 

THE  RAILWAY  THROUGH  MANCHURIA 

Concessions  granted  by  China  to  construct  the  Manchurian  Railway — The 
East  Chinese  Railway  Company  and  its  statutes — Method  of  con- 
struction and  utilization  of  the  water-ways — Military  and  political 
advantages — Branch  to  Port  Arthur — Rapid  progress  already  made. 

The  completion  of  the  Manchurian  Railway  will  take  place 
in  a few  years,  and  if  there  has  been  an  apparent  delay  in  its 
construction,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  harder  work  had 
already  been  finished  on  the  Trans-Siberian  line  when  the  plans 
for  the  Chinese  scheme  were  only  just  drawn  up,  and  also  that 
the  obstacles  to  be  overcome  in  Manchuria  are  infinitely  greater 
than  any  that  presented  themselves  in  Siberia.  These  obstacles 
are  mainly  the  result  of  the  natural  formation  of  the  soil.  As 
to  the  alleged  political  difficulties,  they  are  very  unimportant, 
although  the  line  does  pass  through  a Chinese  province. 

Notwithstanding  that  it  was  nominally  conceded  to  an 
anonymous  society,  the  line  is  absolutely  in  the  hands  of  the 
Russian  Government,  to  confirm  which  statement  we  have 
only  to  study  the  statutes  of  the  East  China  Railway 
Company,  which  were  drawn  up  by  the  chief  promoter, 
M.  de  Witte,  and  formulated  by  the  Russo-Chinese  Bank 
between  August  26  and  September  8,  1896,  after  the  signing 
of  the  Convention  between  the  Russian  and  the  Chinese  Govern- 
ments. According  to  these  statutes,  which  were  approved  of 
by  the  Russian  Government  on  December  4 to  16,  1896, 
and  published  in  the  Messager  Officiel  de  I’ Empire,  ‘ the 
shareholders  must  be  either  Russians  or  Chinese.  The  con- 
cession lapses  at  the  end  of  eighty  years  from  the  day  of  the 
opening  of  the  completed  line.  The  bonds  can  only  be  issued 
on  demand,  and  then  only  with  the  consent  of  the  Russian 

71 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 

Minister  of  Finance.  The  Russian  Government  guarantees 
payment  of  the  interest  and  the  redemption  of  the  bonds. 
The  company  is  managed  by  a committee,  comprising  a 
President  and  nine  members,  of  whom  one  is  Vice-President, 
divided  between  Peking  and  St.  Petersburg.  The  President  is 
chosen  by  the  Chinese  Government  only ; the  other  members 
of  the  committee  are  usually  elected  at  a general  meeting  of  the 
shareholders.  The  chief  duty  of  the  President  is  to  watch 
over  the  interests  of  the  Chinese  Government.  The  Vice- 
President  is  supposed  to  interest  himself  exclusively  in  the 
management  of  the  company.  The  Russian  Government  has 
a right  to  superintend  the  progress  and  development  of  the 
works,  both  during  the  period  of  construction  and  of  exploita- 
tion. The  Russian  Minister  of  Finance  has,  moreover,  the 
right  to  ratify  the  nominations  of  the  Vice-President,  chief 
engineer,  and  of  all  other  officials,  and  to  approve  or  other- 
wise of  any  modifications  which  may  be  suggested  during  the 
construction  of  the  line. 

These  and  other  regulations,  to  which  we  need  only  allude, 
prove  the  preponderating  influence  of  Russia  in  the  under- 
taking, and  we  should,  moreover,  remember  that  the  majority 
of  the  shares  are  in  the  hands  of  the  Russian  Government. 
It  is  therefore  obvious  that  the  Chinese  President  is  but  a 
mere  figurehead,  and  that  the  whole  enterprise  is  exclusively 
Russian.  As  a matter  of  fact,  the  only  important  reserva- 
tion made  in  the  interests  of  China  is  the  following  : ‘ After 
a lapse  of  thirty-six  years  from  the  date  of  the  completion 
of  the  line,  the  Chinese  Government  will  have  the  right  to  re- 
purchase it,  and  to  assume  all  the  responsibilities  of  ihe  said 
company.’  If  China  does  not  avail  herself  of  this  right  of 
repurchase,  she  will  not  enter  into  possession  of  the  line  and 
its  dependencies  until  the  conclusion  of  the  eighty  years  from 
the  date  of  its  inauguration  originally  stipulated,  under  which 
circumstance  she  will  certainly  have  a very  long  time  to  wait. 
The  statutes  also  declare  that  the  works  must  begin  not  later 
than  August  i6  to  28,  1897,  and  that  they  must  be  finished  in 
six  years,  that  is  to  say,  in  1903,  but,  as  a matter  of  fact,  it  is 
not  likely  that  everything  will  be  ready  by  that  time,  owing  to 
the  many  obstacles  the  engineers  have  to  overcome. 

According  to  a project  accepted  in  1897,  the  Manchurian 
line  from  Onon  to  Nikolsk  will  be  1,200  miles  in  length,  of 
which  890  miles  will  pass  through  the  Celestial  Empire,  and 

72 


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310  miles  through  Russian  territory.  The  total  distance  by 
rail  from  Cheliabinsk  to  Vladivostok  will  be  4,072  miles  instead 
of  4,640,  as  stated  in  the  original  scheme,  including  the  40 
miles  across  Lake  Baikal. 

Chinese  Manchuria  is  composed  of  the  two  basins  of  the 
Sungari,  the  great  affluent  of  the  Amur,  which  joins  this  river 
between  Blagovyeshchensk  and  Khabarofsk,  and  of  the  Liao-ho, 
which  flows  into  the  treaty  port  of  Niu-chwang  in  the  Govern- 
ment of  Pechili.  Between  these  two  basins  lies  a zone  of 
steppes,  quite  destitute  of  water,  an  eastern  prolongation  of  the 
great  Desert  of  Gobi,  and  130  miles  in  width.  To  the  east  of 
the  north  and  north-west  of  Manchuria  rises  a chain  of  lofty 
mountains,  which  separate  the  valleys  of  the  Amur  and  its 
tributaries,  the  Argun  and  the  Ussuri,  from  the  great  inland 
and  very  marshy  plain  watered  by  the  Sungari  and  its  tributary 
rivers. 

The  new  line  will,  after  leaving  Onon,  have  to  cross  a lofty 
chain  of  mountains  south  of  Trans-Baikalia,  265  miles  in 
length,  at  a height  of  over  3,000  feet,  and  then  descend  into 
the  valley  of  the  Argun,  to  finally  enter  an  absolutely  deserted 
mountainous  region,  unexplored  until  the  arrival  of  the  engineer- 
ing mission,  some  130  miles  long.  Thence  it  will  have  to  be 
carried  over  a height  exceeding  even  the  3,000  feet  above 
mentioned,  and  for  another  330  miles  will  run  at  a height 
varying  between  300  to  600  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Sungari 
plain,  to  again  rise  to  1,950  feet  in  order  to  cross  another  lofty 
range  before  redescending  to  Nikolsk,  which  is  130  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea.  To  the  difficulties  thrown  in  the  way  of 
rapid  progress  by  the  great  height  and  precipitous  nature  of 
the  Manchurian  Mountains  must  be  added  those  created  by 
the  unstable  condition  of  the  soil,  which,  according  to  some 
travellers  of  my  acquaintance  who  have  explored  this  district, 
consists  of  one  immense  lake  of  mud.  Fortunately,  however, 
it  seems  that  at  about  three  or  four  feet  below  this  objection- 
able surface  exists  a solid  bed  of  gravel,  which  may  afford  an 
excellent  foundation  for  the  line.  These  unfavourable  con- 
ditions were  at  first  deemed  so  insurmountable  that  at  one 
time  many  pessimists  were  of  opinion  that  it  would  be  wiser 
to  abandon  the  Manchurian  scheme  altogether,  and  return  to 
the  original  plan  of  passing  through  the  valley  of  the  Amur. 
The  Tsar,  however,  held  firm  to  his  purpose,  and  the  order 
was  promulgated  by  His  Majesty  in  1898  to  forthwith  under- 

73 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


take  the  construction  of  that  portion  of  the  line  between  Onon 
and  the  Argun  situated  in  his  own  territory.  The  waterways 
in  Chinese  territory  have  been  utilized  precisely  as  those  in 
Siberia.  In  order  to  ascend  the  Sungari  a number  of  flat 
steam -tugs  were  ordered  from  Newcastle -on -Tyne.  They 

are  unusually  shallow,  only  drawing  two  feet  of  water,  are 
supplied  with  engines  of  500  horse-power,  and  intended  to 
convey  the  rails.  These  are  brought  from  Europe,  via  Vladi- 
vostok, over  the  Ussuri  line.  I remember  in  September 
being  at  Iman,  where  the  Vladivostok  line  reaches  the  Ussuri, 
and  watching  with  great  interest  one  of  these  immense  boats  in 
process  of  reconstruction.  I cannot  help  thinking,  however, 
that  the  Argun  would  be  better  for  the  transport  of  heavy 
railway  material  than  the  shallow  Sungari. 

If  the  Russian  Government  so  promptly  determined  to  carry 
out  the  construction  of  the  Manchurian  Railway,  it  was  rather 
on  account  of  important  political  considerations  than  of  any 
shortening  of  the  route.  This  railway,  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind,  passes  at  less  than  330  miles  from  the  extreme  north 
of  the  Gulf  of  Pechili,  whereas  by  the  Amur  line  the  distance  is 
double,  and  even  then,  after  arriving  at  Vladivostok  in  order 
to  reach  Pechili,  an  unexplored  and  uninhabited  mountainous 
district  which  extends  north  of  the  Korean  Frontier  would 
have  to  be  passed.  From  the  plain  of  the  Sungari  Russia  can 
easily  send  troops  to  Mukden  and  Niu  chwang,  and  if  neces- 
sary even  to  Peking,  whereas  from  Vladivostok  she  would  find 
it  very  difficult,  if  not  absolutely  impossible,  to  transport  them 
by  land,  and,  moreover,  there  she  is  by  no  means  complete 
mistress  of  the  sea. 

Vladivostok  already  contains  a number  of  important  maritime 
establishments,  the  harbour  is  excellent,  and  in  case  of  a war 
with  Japan  it  would  be  a most  important  point  of  vantage. 
Russia,  however,  calculates  that  by  means  of  the  Manchurian 
Railway  she  will  be  able  to  transfer  the  Trans-Siberian  terminus 
five  degrees  south  of  Vladivostok,  to  Port  Arthur,  whereby  she 
dominates  the  Gulf  of  Pechili  and  both  the  land  and  sea 
routes  leading  to  the  Chinese  capital.  This  scheme  has  been 
absolutely  decided  upon  since  1898.  The  branch  lines  which 
unite  the  harbours  of  Port  Arthur  and  Talien-wan  to  the 
nearest  point  of  the  East  Chinese  Railway,  close  to  the 
town  of  Kirin,  are  being  pushed  on  as  actively  as  possible. 
Thousands  of  tons  of  rail,  as  well  as  a number  of  railway- 

74 


SIBERIA 


engines,  have  already  arrived  from  France  and  America  at 
Port  Arthur  and  Niu-chwang,  and  another  branch  of  the 
Russian  Railway  is  being  laid  in  the  direction  of  this  last- 
named  port.  The  branch  from  Port  Arthur  is  about  530 
miles,  so  that  the  total  length  of  the  Trans-Siberian  line  will  not 
be  greatly  increased  by  this  deviation,  which  will  bring  it  to  a 
full-stop  at  the  extremity  of  the  peninsula  of  Liao-tung,  on  the 
shores  of  a sea  which  is  always  free  of  ice.  The  total  increase 
in  the  expenditure  will  not  exceed  ;^5,ooo,ooo. 


75 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE  ALTERED  RELATIONS  BETWEEN  EUROPE  AND  THE  FAR 
EAST  RESULTING  FROM  THE  TRANS-SIBERIAN  RAILWAY 

The  distance  between  Europe  and  the  Far  East  by  the  Trans-Siberian — 
Diminution  of  the  time  and  expense  of  the  sea-route — China  and  Japan 
within  two  weeks  of  Paris  and  London — Luxury  and  comfort  on  board 
the  Far  East  express — The  difficulty  of  transporting  merchandisCi 
which  must  remain  much  more  expensive  than  by  the  sea-route — 
Importance  of  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway  as  a means  of  diffusing 
civilization  in  the  Far  East. 

As  already  stated,  between  1904  and  1905  at  the  latest,  a con- 
tinuous railroad  will  bring  Europe  in  touch  with  the  shores  of 
the  Pacific.  The  distances  between  Paris,  Berlin,  and  London, 
and  Vladivostok  and  Port  Arthur  are  as  follows : 

5,852  miles  from  St.  Petersburg,  vii  Moscow. 

6,370  if  » Berlin. 

7.044  » i>  Paris- 

7,104  „ London,  via  Dover  and  Ostend. 

European  expresses  would  traverse  the  longest  of  these 
distances  in  one  week ; but  it  must  be  remembered  that  it  is 
not  at  present  possible  for  trains  to  run  over  the  Siberian 
Railway  at  such  high  speeds  as  from  forty  to  fifty  miles  an 
hour.  These  are  only  possible  upon  the  very  substantial  lines 
of  Western  Europe,  and  are  indeed  much  in  excess  of  what  is 
achieved  by  the  American  Trans-Continental  trains,  once  they 
cross  the  Mississippi,  or  by  the  Canadian  Pacific,  the  speed  on 
which  between  Montreal  and  Vancouver  rarely  exceeds  twenty- 
five  miles,  and  even  this  relatively  low  rate  cannot  be  expected 
at  first  on  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway.  The  rails  are  very  light, 
especially  on  the  first  or  western  sections,  and  the  whole  rail- 
road is,  in  many  places,  as  is  often  the  case  in  America,  rather 

76 


SIBERIA 


primitively  constructed.  It  is  therefore  calculated  that  the 
Far  East  express,  the  weekly  train-de-luxe,  which  is  to  be 
organized  as  soon  as  the  line  is  completely  finished,*  will 
take  not  less  than  twelve  days  to  perform  the  journey  between 
London  or  Paris  and  Vladivostok  and  Port  Arthur,  which  will 
not  necessitate  a greater  speed  than  twenty  miles  an  hour 
over  the  Siberian  lines.  When,  however,  the  system  is  better 
managed  and  placed  on  the  same  footing  as  that  of  the 
Canadian  Pacific,  the  journey  may  possibly  be  performed  in 
a few  hours  under  eleven  days.  The  Trans-Siberian  route  will, 
once  it  is  opened,  be  incomparably  the  shortest  route  between 
Europe  and  the  Far  East.  It  takes  from  Vladivostok  to  the 
Japanese  ports  of  Nawoyetsu  and  Niigata  on  the  Japanese  Sea, 
a distance  of  about  480  miles,  about  forty  hours  by  steamer. 
From  thence,  about  280  miles  of  rail,  traversed  in  fifteen  hours, 
will  bring  the  capital  of  the  Mikado  within  two  and  a half  days 
from  Vladivostok,  and  about  fifteen  days  from  Paris.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  Chinese  line,  which  is  now  being  reorganized 
by  an  English  company  between  Peking  and  Tien-Tsin,  and 
from  thence  to  Shan-hai  kwan  at  the  foot  of  the  Great  Wall,  is 
being  extended  to  Niu-chwang,  where  it  will  join  the  Russian 
lines,  and  thus  the  journey  from  Paris  and  London  to  Peking 
can  be  performed  in  between  thirteen  and  fifteen  days.  Shang- 
hai, the  principal  port  of  China,  is  distant  575  miles  from  Port 
Arthur,  and  can  be  reached  in  two  days,  and  thus  Hong- Kong 
will  be  only  seventeen  days’  journey  from  London.  It  now 
takes  thirty-four  days  at  least  to  get  from  Paris  or  London  to 
Yokohama  vii  the  Suez  Canal,  and  twenty-one  via  Canada, 
and  certainly  not  less  than  twenty-eight  days  to  reach  Shanghai 
by  either  route.  Twenty-five  days  are  required  to  get  to  Hong- 
Kong  vH  Suez,  and  thirty  vii  America,  and  although  this  port 
is  situated  in  the  tropics,  it  could  be  reached  much  more  ex- 
peditiously vii  Siberia  than  round  by  India.  The  Marseilles 
steamers  touch  at  Saigon  after  a voyage  of  twenty-three  days, 
but  it  is  not  probable  that  they  will  be  able  to  compete  in  the 
matter  of  speed  with  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway.  The  capital 
of  Cochin  China,  however,  marks  the  extreme  limit  of  this 
sphere ; but  all  places  situated  to  its  north  and  east — Japan, 
Tonkin,  China,  and  the  Philippines — can  be  brought  immea- 
surably nearer  to  Europe  than  was  certainly  ever  imagined  by 


This  train  has  been  running  for  a year  as  far  as  Irkutsk. — H.  N. 

77 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


Voltaire  when  he  wrote  his  letter  to  Count  Schuvarof.  It  is 
therefore  evident  that,  even  if  the  maritime  companies  do  their 
utmost  to  increase  the  speed  of  their  boats,  they  will  never  be 
able  to  convey  travellers  to  Peking,  Hong-Kong,  Shanghai, 
Tokio  or  Manila,  in  anything  like  the  short  space  of  time 
taken  by  the  Trans-Siberian. 

Another  great  advantage  of  the  Trans-Siberian  line  is  the 
diminution  of  the  expense,  which  will  be  considerably  less  than 
that  charged  by  the  steamers.  The  price  of  a first-class  passage 
from  Marseilles  to  Hong-Kong,  Shanghai,  or  to  one  of  the 
Japanese  ports,  is  uniformly  about  jQto,  to  which  must  be 
added  another  ;£$  for  travelling  expenses  from  London  to  the 
starting-point.  Vii  Canada  the  expense  is  about  the  same, 
whereas  by  crossing  Siberia  it  will  cost  something  like  half. 
The  Russian  tariff  is  an  extremely  reasonable  one,  especially 
for  great  distances,  and  it  is  calculated  that  the  prices  from  the 
German  frontier  to  Vladivostok  or  Port  Arthur  will  be  by  the 
ordinary  trains  about  1 1 guineas  first  class,  and  ^5  third.  By 
the  train-de-luxe  from  the  Russian  frontier  to  the  end  of  the 
journey  it  will  be  ;^i8.  To  these  expenses  must,  however, 
be  added  those  which  are  always  inclusive  on  board  ships,  but 
never  on  the  trains — such  as  food,  service,  etc.,  which,  how- 
ever, are  never  alarmingly  high  on  the  German  or  Russian 
lines.  If  we  add  to  the  above  the  price  of  the  ticket  from 
Port  Arthur  to  Shanghai,  ^^6,  to  Hong-Kong,  ^12,  it  is  clear 
that  the  cost  of  the  journey  will  be  about  £,■^2  from  Paris  to 
North  China  and  Japan,  and  £40  to  Southern  China — in  a 
word,  half  what  is  charged  at  present 

A rather  alarming  question  arises  as  to  how  people  will  be 
able  to  endure  the  inevitable  fatigue  of  passing  twelve  days 
continuously  in  a railway-carriage.  Habit  is  second  nature, 
and  although  there  is  no  other  line  in  the  world  of  such  great 
length,  nevertheless  countless  Americans  think  nothing  of 
spending  a week  or  ten  days  constantly  travelling  by  train.  It 
must  be  remembered,  too,  that  the  carriages  intended  for  this 
line  will  be  built  expressly,  and  contain  every  conceivable  com- 
fort and  modern  improvement.  A long  corridor  down  the 
centre  of  the  compartments  will  enable  passengers  to  take 
exercise ; and,  needless  to  say,  everything  will  be  arranged  for 
the  comfort  of  the  sleeping  department,  and  for  the  heating  of 
the  carriages  in  winter.  Already  those  lines  which  have  been 
opened  in  Siberia  are  supplied  with  restaurants  providing  very 


SIBERIA 


good  food,  and  usually  under  the  management  of  a Japanese, 
whose  head  cook  is  well  skilled  in  the  concoction  of  cosmo- 
politan dishes,  and  whose  waiters  leave  nothing  to  be  desired 
in  point  of  cleanliness  and  civility.  Even  now,  in  out-of-the- 
way  stations,  where,  a few  years  ago,  the  foot  of  man  had  never 
trod,  travellers  who  have  exhausted  their  store  of  novels  may 
find  a bookstall  fairly  well  supplied  with  current  fiction  and 
guide-books. 

'I'he  Russian  Government,  however,  in  its  zeal  for  the  com- 
fort of  Trans-Siberian  travellers,  has  made  arrangements  for  the 
installation  of  a super -excellent  restaurant,  a well -stocked 
library,  and,  in  short,  of  all  those  many  luxuries  hitherto  which 
are  the  joy  and  boast  of  Americans.  One  cannot  expect  the 
comfort  of  a first  class  liner  in  a narrow,  box-like  train ; but 
then  we  must  remember  that  the  passengers  on  board  these 
floating  palaces  have  to  endure  many  miseries  in  the  shape  of 
sea-sickness  and  the  numerous  ills  which  invariably  accompany 
a journey  through  the  Torrid  Zone.  There  can  be  no  question 
as  to  the  superiority  of  the  Trans-Siberian  route  to  the  Pacific 
over  the  Canadian,  inasmuch  as  the  latter  includes  two  long 
sea-journeys.  In  summer  the  Trans-Siberian  line  will  be  un- 
doubtedly very  pleasant,  and  even  in  winter  the  carriages  can 
be  kept  warm,  and,  moreover,  there  need  be  no  fear  of  an  un- 
expected visitation  from  an  avalanche  as  there  is  in  Canada. 
And  thus,  in  the  course  of  a few  years,  the  irrepressible  globe- 
trotters of  the  two  worlds,  as  well  as  the  business  man,  to  whom 
‘ time  is  money,’  will  find  a new  and  rapid  means  to  reach 
countries  which  distance  and  the  difficulties  of  travel  have 
hitherto  placed  beyond  the  reach  of  only  the  most  enterprising 
or  of  those  who  do  not  mind  a very  long  sea-voyage.  From 
the  purely  commercial  side  of  the  question,  however,  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  a very  long  time  may  elapse  before  the  Trans- 
Siberian  Railway  can  compete  with  the  sea  route  in  trans- 
porting heavy  merchandise  to  and  from  the  Far  East,  and  the 
great  commercial  centres  of  Europe  and  Asia.  Still,  certain 
lighter  articles — silk  and  tea,  for  instance— can  certainly  be 
brought  in  fair  quantities,  via  the  Siberian  line,  at  a reasonable 
price.  One  of  the  great  advantages  of  the  line  will  be  the 
facilities  it  offers  for  forwarding  letters  to  and  from  China, 
Japan,  etc.,  in  considerably  less  than  half  the  time  now  taken. 

As  to  the  social  transformation  which  must  inevitably  result 
from  the  constant  passage  of  so  many  people  belonging  to  the 

79 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 

highly  civilized  nations  of  the  west,  through  a country  hitherto 
so  backward  as  Siberia,  it  may  well  be  summed  up  as  incal- 
culable. That  Russia  will  specially  benefit  by  the  creation  of 
a line  which  she  has  built  at  an  enormous  cost  is  but  just, 
and,  moreover,  surely  the  reward  for  her  courage  and  enter- 
prise. At  the  same  time,  civilization  will  also  find  a common 
interest  in  the  amazing  difference  which  so  important  a factor 
must  inevitably  create  in  the  history  of  progress  in  the  Far 
East 


8o 


PART  II.— JAPAN 
CHAPTER  I 

THE  ORIGIN  AND  PAST  HISTORY  OF  JAPAN 

Different  opinions  respecting  Japan  and  the  reforms  which  have  been 
carried  out  in  that  Empire  within  the  past  few  years—  Necessity  of 
understanding  something  of  Japanese  history  in  order  to  appreciate 
the  recent  transformation  in  the  country — Origin  of  the  Japanese — 
Early  history — The  Mikados — The  Japanese  adopt  Chinese  civilization 
between  the  6fth  and  eighth  centuries  of  our  era — Inability  for 
the  Japanese  to  accept  certain  Chinese  institutions — Decline  of  the 
absolute  power  of  the  Mikados — Military  government  adopted  in  the 
twelfth  century — Japanese  feudalism — Increase  of  power  among  the 
feudal  lords  in  the  fourteenth  century — Civil  wars  and  anarchy  in  the 
fifteenth  century — Order  re-established  and  the  Government  centralized 
through  the  action  of  the  great  military  chieftains  at  the  end  of  the 
sixteenth  century  — Foundation  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Tokugawa 
Shoguns — Europeans  in  Japan  in  the  sixteenth  century — The  Japanese 
accept  our  civilization  with  enthusiasm — Rapid  spread  of  Christianity 
— Reaction  in  the  seventeenth  century — Purely  political  causes — Per- 
secution of  Christians  and  the  expulsion  of  foreigners — Japan  isolated 
during  nearly  two  centuries. 

The  absolute  isolation  which  Japan  preserved  for  over  three 
hundred  years  and  her  systematic  rejection  of  any  attempt  at 
the  introduction  of  even  a ray  of  Western  civilization,  is  not, 
it  must  be  confessed,  without  fascination  for  all  who  take 
interest  in  the  history  of  a people  who,  during  the  last 
thirty  years,  have  become  so  popular  and  so  progressive  as 
the  Japanese.  Suddenly,  and  without  any  explicable  cause, 
the  country,  which  was  as  carefully  sealed  to  the  outer  world  as 
the  enchanter’s  famous  casket,  was  thrown  wide  open,  not  only 
to  admit,  but  even  to  court,  foreign  progress,  science  and 
civilization,  and  now  Japan  has  definitively  accepted  without 

8i  G 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


any  hesitation  the  most  absolute  changes  and  audacious  inno- 
vations in  her  political  and  social  systems,  and  has  effected  a 
transformation  in  her  manners,  ideas,  and  customs,  not  to 
mention  costumes,  such  as  has  never  before  been  achieved  by 
any  other  nation  in  so  brief  a space  of  time. 

At  first  Europe  watched  this  extraordinary  evolution  with 
interest,  not  unmingled,  however,  with  scepticism,  finding  it 
difficult  to  take  seriously  what  might  in  the  end  prove  but  a 
passing  fashion  or  the  result  of  caprice.  Many,  indeed,  felt 
anxious  lest  the  introduction  of  modern  civilization  into  a 
country  so  deliciously  quaint  and  fascinating  as  Japan  might 
destroy  the  charm  of  a population  of  artists,  and,  moreover,  do 
irreparable  damage  to  that  exquisite  art  for  which  it  is  so 
justly  celebrated.  For  many,  Japan  ought  to  have  remained 
the  land  of  lovely  china,  of  rich  lacquers,  of  kakimonos,  musmes 
and  chrysanthemums.  Indeed,  who  could  be  expected  to 
believe  that  the  home  of  the  geisha  and  of  all  sorts  of  dainty 
delights,  of  dwarf  trees  and  liliputian  tea-gardens,  could 
possibly  acclimatize  the  smoky  industries,  the  strict  militarism 
and  the  matter-of-fact  judicial  and  political  systems  of  our 
humdrum  civilization  ? As  well  expect  such  a transformation 
in  a world  of  butterflies  and  glittering  dragon-flies  as  in  the 
Empire  of  the  Mikado.  One  eminent  writer  declared  that 
‘ the  Japan  of  to-day  is  but  a bad  translation’]  and  yet  another 
says  : ‘ I find  Japan  a sort  of  anaemic  dwarf.  1 know  that  she  is 
of  antediluvian  antiquity,  but  for  all  that  I cannot  help  think- 
ing this  little  old  mummy,  bedecking  herself  in  the  trappings 
of  Western  civilization,  supremely  ridiculous.’  This  was  the 
opinion  held  not  only  by  casual  visitors  to  Japan,  but  also  by 
not  a few  who  had  lived  for  years  in  the  country,  and  who 
were  never  happy  excepting  when  contrasting  the  solid  qualities 
of  the  Chinese,  their  circumspection,  their  prudence,  and  their 
profound  attachment  to  ancient  customs,  with  the  intense 
vanity  and  frivolity  of  the  Japanese. 

What  could  not  be  achieved  by  twenty-five  years  of  hard 
work  and  peaceful  progress  in  the  way  of  convincing  Europe  of 
the  earnestness  of  her  intentions  Japan  did  in  less  than  six 
months  by  her  military  successes.  When  Europe  beheld  the 
triumphant  achievements  of  the  Mikado’s  army,  she  had  to 
confess  that  Japan  was  not  quite  the  butterfly  she  had 
imagined,  and  began  to  study  with  greater  attention  the 
remarkable  work  which  had  been  accomplished  in  that  Empire. 

82 


JAPAN 

But  the  wonderful  progress  made  in  Japan  during  the  last 
half  of  this  century  would  not  seem  so  extraordinary  were 
the  history  of  the  Land  of  Flowers  and  its  people  better 
known.  By  the  light  of  the  past,  the  Revolution  of  1868, 
which  led  to  the  suppression  of  the  feudal  system  in  Japan, 
and  to  the  opening  of  the  ports  throughout  the  country, 
becomes  clear  and  sequent. 

In  the  fifth  century  of  our  era  Japanese  history  begins  to 
assume  definite  form,  and  the  chronicles  of  the  Kojiki  and  the 
Nihongi,  which  were  written  in  the  eighth  century,  cease  to 
record  mythological  events  and  to  deal  with  those  purely 
human.  Since  that  date  the  ancestors  of  the  present  Emperor 
have  been  ruling  sovereigns  over  the  two  meridional  islands 
Kiu-Siu  and  Sikoku,  and  the  south-western  section  of  the 
great  Island  of  Hondo.  According  to  tradition,  they  had 
already  been  reigning  princes  for  over  a thousand  years,  and 
their  history,  like  that  of  almost  every  other  great  dynasty, 
stretches  back  into  the  night  of  time,  when  the  world  was 
peopled  by  gods  and  demigods.  The  first  Emperor,  Jimmu- 
Tenno,  was  a grandson  of  Amaterasu,  Goddess  of  the  Sun, 
herself  a great-granddaughter  of  the  gods  Izanaghi  and 
Izanami,  who  were  the  actual  founders  of  Japan.  \Ve  next 
learn  that  Japan  sprang  direct  from  the  hands  of  the  gods, 
whereas  all  the  other  countries  of  the  world,  even  those  from 
whom  she  is  pleased  to  accept  modern  civilization,  originated 
through  the  evolution  of  natural  forces.  Jimmu-Tenno  having 
alighted  on  this  earth  from  heaven  on  the  island  of  Kiu-Siu, 
passed  thence  vii  the  Inland  Sea  to  Hondo,  where,  after 
conquering  ‘ people  of  the  same  race  as  his  own  subjects,’ 
who  inhabited  these  parts,  he  subdued  the  whole  of  the  western 
part  of  the  island,  even  to  the  zone  of  the  central  forests,  ‘ which 
were  peopled  by  barbarians.’  In  the  year  660  b.c.,  he  established 
himself  in  the  province  of  Yamato,  where  they  pretend  in  our 
day  to  have  discovered  his  tomb.  It  is  from  this  very  early  date 
that  the  Japanese  begin  their  history.  Jimmu-Tenno  was  suc- 
ceeded by  several  generations  of  Mikados,  of  whom  the  first 
seventeen  were  centenarians,  who  lived  between  a hundred  and 
a hundred  and  forty  years  each.  In  those  distant  times,  the  gods, 
it  seems,  took  the  same  personal  interest  in  Japanese  affairs  as 
they  condescended  to  do  in  those  of  the  I’rojans.  The  history, 
however,  of  Japan,  in  its  legendary  period,  like  that  of  most 
other  countries,  is  exceedingly  sketchy  and  contains  nothing  of 

83  G 2 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


a positive  character  until  the  year  200  a.d.,  when  an  Amazonian 
Empress,  w'ho  rejoiced  in  the  rather  startling  name  of  Jingo, 
headed  a successful  campaign  against  the -''Coreans. 

Contemporary  historical  research  has  resulted  in  clearing 
away  a good  deal  of  the  mist  which  shrouded  in  a veil  of  mystery 
the  primitive  history  of  Japan.  It  would  seem,  however,  for 
instance,  that  some  centuries  before  our  era  the  Mongolian 
pirates  indulged  in  frequent  incursions  upon  the  western  coast 
of  the  country  in  much  the  same  unpleasant  manner  as  did, 
some  thousand  years  later,  the  Normans  in  Europe.  After 
exterminating  the  natives,  who  were  not  numerous,  they 
established  themselves,  together  with  their  wives  and  families, 
in  the  island  of  Kiu-Siu.  Later  on,  an  illustrious  chief,  who 
turns  out  on  closer  acquaintance  to  be  none  other  than 
Jimmu-Tenno,  of  legendary  fame,  crossed  over  to  the  great  island 
and  ‘ found  it  peopled  by  inhabitants  of  the  same  race  as 
himself’ ; hence  it  becomes  evident  that  there  were  two  distinct 
migrations  from  the  mainland  of  the  ancestors  of  the  actual 
Japanese,  a fact  confirmed  in  a double  cycle  of  heroic  legends, 
one  of  which  deals  with  the  island  of  Kiu-Siu  and  the  other 
with  the  province  of  Idzuma,  situated  on  the  west  coast  of 
Hondo,  an  island  opposite  Korea. 

The  Japanese,  therefore,  form  a part  of  the  great  family 
scientifically  known  as  the  Uralo-Altaic,  which  includes  the 
Finns,  the  Hungarians,  the  Turks,  the  Mongols  and  the 
Koreans.  The  different  branches  of  this  family  appear  to  be 
less  closely  united  than  are  those  of  the  white  race,  but  on  the 
other  hand,  their  languages,  which  are  distinctly  agglutinant, 
have  certainly  a common  origin.  It  should  be  remarked  that 
the  Chinese  do  not  form  part  of  this  group,  constituting  a 
family  quite  apart,  whose  language  is  distinctly  monosyllabic 
and  rhythmic.  Their  handwriting,  however,  was  adopted  by  the 
Japanese  between  a thousand  and  twelve  hundred  years  ago, 
as  were  also  a number  of  words  describing  objects  which  up 
to  that  time  were  unknown  to  them,  and  probably  introduced 
from  China.  If  it  is  an  undoubted  fact  that  the  Chinese  and 
Japanese  belong  to  the  Yellow  Race,  the  link  which  unites 
them  is  quite  as  remote  as  that  which  exists  between  a French- 
man and  a German  on  the  one  hand,  or  an  Arab  and  a Kal  yle 
on  the  other.  A superficial  analogy  between  the  Chinese  and 
the  Japanese  must  not  mislead  us.  The  very  sparse  indigenous 
race  which  the  Korean  immigrants  found  upon  the  south  and 

84 


JAPAN 


south-west  of  Japan  were  of  the  same  family  as  the  Ainos  of 
our  time,  of  whom  some  15,000  still  linger  in  Yezo,  the  great 
southern  island  of  the  Archipelago ; and,  moreover,  they  be- 
longed to  the  same  race  as  the  Ghilaks  of  the  Amur,  and  the 
tribes  to  the  north-east  of  Siberia.  These  Ainos,  who  exist 
by  hunting  and  fishing,  are  considered  to  be  the  hairiest  people 
on  earth  ; they  are  mere  savages,  quite  as  dirty  in  their  habits 
as  the  Japanese  are  clean.  They  had  in  all  probability  little 
or  nothing  to  do  with  the  formation  of  the  actual  population. 

The  civilization  of  the  ancient  Japanese  until  the  fifth  or 
sixth  century  of  our  era  was,  it  seems,  most  primitive.  Writing 
was  unknown,  and  the  people  were  but  just  emancipated  from 
the  Stone  Age,  their  knowledge  of  the  use  of  metal  being  very 
limited.  They  owned  a few  domestic  animals,  the  horse  and 
the  dog,  and  also  poultry.  They  cultivated  rice,  millet,  barley, 
two  sorts  of  peas,  and  in  addition  to  these  cereals  the  sea  and 
the  rivers  supplied  them  with  fish,  and  the  forests  with  flesh. 
They  apparently  ate  more  meat  than  do  their  descendants  of 
the  present  day,  a fact  due,  of  course,  to  the  introduction  of 
Buddhism,  whose  followers  are,  or  should  be,  vegetarians.  As 
to  their  houses,  they  were  of  wood  and  extremely  simple. 

The  Shinto  religion,  which  has  become  once  more  the  State 
religion,  ha^  a mythology  formed  out  of  legends  dealing  with 
the  generation  of  the  gods  who  preceded  the  advent  of  the 
Imperial  family.  Out  of  the  eight  hundred  myriads  of  divinities 
only  some  half-dozen  are  now  venerated.  Among  these  is 
Amaterasu,  Goddess  of  the  Sun,  and  ancestress  of  Jimmu-Tenno. 
The  spirits  of  the  deceased  Mikados  and  of  certain  heroes  are 
known  as  Kami,  ‘ superior  beings,’  and  are  honoured  by  this 
title,  as  are  also  the  ancestors  of  each  family.  Beyond  this 
Shintoism  recognises  neither  dogma  nor  ethics.  A writer  of 
the  last  century  thus  apologizes  for  this  easy-going  creed.  ‘ It 
was,’  says  he,  ‘ invented  by  the  Chinese,  because  they  are  a very 
immoral  people ; but  in  Japan  morality  is  not  needed,  since  the 
Japanese  have  only  to  act  according  to  the  dictates  of  their 
hearts  to  do  well.  To  obey  the  Emperor,  who  is  the  descendant 
of  the  gods,  and  almost  a god  himself,  and  follow  one’s  natural 
inclinations,  are  the  only  precepts  imposed  upon  its  followers 
by  Shintoism,  and  a pilgrimage  to  the  nearest  temple  once  a 
year  the  only  kind  of  divine  service  exacted.  There  are  no 
public  ceremonies,  excepting  an  occasional  hieratic  dance  per- 
formed by  young  girls.  In  the  wooden  temples  roofed  with 

8S 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


bark,  which  are  supposed  to  reproduce  the  habitations  of  the 
primitive  Japanese,  there  are  no  ornaments,  no  sculpture,  and 
no  representations  whatever  of  the  Divinity.  The  priests,  who 
wear  no  distinctive  costume,  and  who  lead  the  lives  of  ordinary 
citizens,  occasionally  don  a rich  garment  with  long  flowing 
sleeves,  go  to  the  various  temples  and  perform  certain  very 
simple  rites  in  the  presence  of  a mystic  mirror  to  be  found  in 
every  temple,  a facsimile  of  one  given  by  the  Goddess  of  the 
Sun  to  her  grandson  Jimmu-Tenno,  as  an  emblem  of  purity. 
A white  horse  will  also  sometimes  be  seen  within  the  precincts 
of  the  temples.  The  only  sacrifice  is  the  offering  of  fruits,  fish, 
wine,  and  rice,  accompanied  by  the  recitation  of  certain  prayers 
in  the  ancient  Japanese  language  ; this  is,  it  must  be  confessed, 
an  exceedingly  primitive  cultus,  but  it  was  the  only  one  known 
in  Japan  until  the  sixth  century,  at  which  epoch  began  the  great 
development  of  Chinese  civilization  in  Japan,  originally  intro- 
duced, however,  by  the  invasion  of  Korea  by  the  Japanese 
armies  at  the  commencement  of  the  third  century.  The  Korean 
envoys  who  brought  the  annual  tribute  to  their  Japanese 
conquerors  eventually  became  the  pioneers  of  civilization 
among  the  more  primitive  race  which  had  overcome  them. 
They  brought  into  the  country,  for  instance,  in  the  year  284 
the  art  of  writing.  Possibly  this  date  is  erroneous  and  ought 
to  be  400,  the  period  when,  according  to  a very  ancient  tradition, 
the  first  mention  of  medicine  is  made  in  the  national  history,  on 
the  occasion  of  the  grave  illness  of  the  then  reigning  Mikado, 
who  was  cured  by  a Korean  physician.  Then  followed  the 
silkworm,  and  the  mulberry-tree,  the  arts  of  spinning  and 
weaving.  Finally,  in  552  the  first  image  of  Buddha  appeared, 
and  eventually  led  to  the  introduction  of  the  religion  of  Sakya- 
muni. 

From  this  period  until  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  century 
there  was  a perfect  invasion  of  the  arts,  customs,  and  opinions, 
religious,  social,  and  political,  of  the  neighbouring  continent. 
Then  was  for  the  first  time  displayed  that  ardour  which  is  so 
peculiar  to  the  Japanese,  and,  if  I might  so  say,  also  of  that  rage 
for  civilization — true,  it  was  then  only  Chinese  civilization — 
which  characterizes  them  at  the  present  day. 

Buddhism  triumphed  without  formidable  opposition,  and  at 
the  beginning  of  the  seventh  century  there  were  not  less  than 
forty-six  temples  and  1,385  priests  or  Buddhist  monks  in 
Japan.  The  Chinese  calendar  was  adopted,  the  language, 

86 


JAPAN 


writing  and  literature  of  China  were  studied  with  enthusiasm. 
Ambassadors  and  special  missions  were  sent  to  the  continent 
to  examine  on  the  spot  the  religion,  the  arts,  the  industries 
and  also  the  government  of  the  Chinese  and  their  political  and 
judicial  system.  Thus  it  so  came  to  pass  that  feudalism  was 
introduced  centuries  before  it  was  imposed  upon  Europe  after 
the  fall  of  the  Roman  Empire.  At  the  death  of  the  Empress 
Suiko  in  628,  under  whose  reign  all  these  reforms  took  place, 
Japan  was  completely  remodelled  after  the  image  and  likeness 
of  China.  The  remarkable  feature  about  this  transformation 
is  its  resemblance  to  the  revolution  now  in  progress.  It  was 
effected  without  the  least  opposition  or  violence.  The  methods 
used  then  were  the  same  as  those  which  are  being  employed 
to-day  : the  sending  forth  of  missions  and  the  employment 
of  foreigners  by  the  Government  to  study  and  introduce 
everything  that  was  likely  to  improve  the  country  and  its 
people.  Above  all,  there  existed  a universal  goodwill  and 
eagerness  to  stimulate  the  advance  movement,  Japan,  there- 
fore, by  her  wonderful  powers  of  assimilation,  was  suddenly 
converted  from  a barbarian  to  a civilized  country.  Never- 
theless, however  deep-rooted  w'as  the  influence  of  China,  it 
did  not  interfere  with  the  architecture  and  the  art  of  the 
Japanese,  which  remained  distinct.  The  good  sense  of  this 
able  people  taught  them  to  distinguish  between  the  different 
elements  in  the  civilization  which  they  were  introducing,  to 
reject  those  which  did  not  suit  them,  and  to  transform  others 
which  were  better  fitted  to  their  inclination.  A reaction, 
however,  set  in  between  the  eighth  and  the  eleventh  centuries 
which  enabled  the  Japanese  to  recover  sufficient  of  their 
identity  and  yet  retain  most  of  the  innovations  in  their 
industries,  agriculture,  and  fine  arts,  in  the  culture  of  which  latter 
they  eventually  surpassed  their  masters.  The  new  religion 
suited  them  admirably,  and  it  remains  to  this  day  much  less 
corrupt  in  Japan  than  it  is  among  the  Chinese  themselves. 
The  official  and  administrative  system  introduced  from  China, 
being  opposed  to  the  natural  bent  of  the  Japanese  mind,  was, 
however,  soon  rejected,  and  they  returned  to  their  own,  which 
suited  them  better. 

The  mandarinate  was  never  acclimatized,  and  the  principle 
of  heredity  always  remained  in  force.  The  divers  degrees  of 
dignity,  at  first  tw'elve  in  number  and  then  nineteen,  were 
never  given,  as  in  China,  to  individuals,  but  to  families  as 

87 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


hereditary  titles.  The  position,  for  instance,  of  Prime  Minister, 
or  K^vmnbaku,  became  hereditary  in  a great  family  of  the 
Court,  that  of  the  Fujiwaras,  from  which,  moreover,  according 
to  tradition,  the  Empress  was  invariably  selected.  Then  began 
to  manifest  itself  that  very  peculiar  trait  in  the  history  of  Japan 
of  real  authority  very  rarely  being  vested  in  the  hand  of  the 
man  supposed  to  exercise  it.  'I'he  Mikado,  who,  from  the 
ninth  century  onwards,  was  invariably  a child,  and  abdicated 
in  youth  to  retire  into  a monastery,  is  supposed  to  reign  and 
yet  never  govern.  This  was  the  beginning  of  a system  of 
Imperial  self-effacement  which  lasted  over  a thousand  years. 
Presently  we  discover  that  the  hereditary  Kwambaku  also 
exercises  no  authority,  which  is  exactly  the  opposite  of  what 
took  place  in  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages,  where,  if  a Sovereign 
retired  into  privacy,  his  Prime  Minister  was  pretty  certain  to 
become  forthwith  correspondingly  prominent.  In  the  Middle 
Ages,  at  an  epoch  when  Europe  was  engaged  in  fighting 
and  slaughtering,  the  Court  of  Kioto  was  a centre  of  art, 
pleasure  and  poetry,  in  which,  however,  authority  was  com- 
pletely set  aside. 

In  the  meantime,  feudalism  established  itself  in  the  country. 
Side  by  side  with  the  effeminate  aristocracy  of  the  kuges, 
certain  nobles  descended  from  collateral  branches  of  the 
Imperial  family,  and  who  in  their  time  had  occupied  great 
official  positions,  both  in  the  provinces  and  in  the  capital,  leaving 
subalterns  to  fulfil  their  duties,  now  formed  themselves  into 
a military  and  territorial  aristocracy,  and,  whilst  profound  peace 
reigned  in  the  greater  part  of  the  country,  carried  on  a war 
against  the  Koreans  in  its  south  eastern  limits,  and  against  the 
Ainos,  who  had  been  driven  back  to  the  north  of  Hondo, 
in  the  north-east.  The  custom  imported  from  China  by  the 
Japanese  of  separating  the  civil  from  the  military  functionaries, 
combined  w’ith  a genius  for  heredity,  led  in  the  course  of  time 
to  the  creation  of  many  great  military  families,  under  whose 
authority  or  lead  clans  of  soldiers  grouped  and  gradually 
separated  themselves  from  the  rest  of  the  population.  The 
chiefs  of  these  clans  in  due  time  became,  especially  in  the  tenth 
century,  in  the  north  and  eastern  provinces,  independent,  so 
that  by  degrees  their  influence  during  the  two  succeeding 
centuries  in  the  Government  was  paramount,  and  the  Court 
of  Kioto  was  the  object  of  perpetual  dissensions  between  two 
great  military  families,  the  Taira,  and  the  Minamoto,  both 

88 


JAPAN 


descendants  of  Emperors  of  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries. 
They  had  each  a claimant  to  the  Imperial  throne,  who  was 
invariably  an  infant.  A Taira,  Kiyomori,  governed  Japan  from 
1156  to  ii8t  in  the  position  of  Prime  Minister.  He  ordered 
the  Minamoto  family  to  be  massacred  ; one  or  two  of  its 
members,  however,  escaped,  among  them  Yoritomo,  the  son  of 
the  chief.  In  due  course  of  time  this  Yoritomo  created  a 
revolution  in  Kwanto  in  his  own  favour.  Upon  learning  of  the 
death  of  Kiyomori  he  straightway  marched  upon  Kioto  in 
company  with  his  bastard  brother,  Yoshitsune,  who  had  escaped 
from  a monastery  to  which  he  had  been  relegated.  Between 
them  they  seized  the  capital  and  proclaimed  a child  of 
seven  years  of  age  Emperor  in  the  place  of  the  Mikado 
Antoku,  who  was  not  much  older,  and  who  was  carried  off  by 
the  Taira  to  the  island  of  Kiu-biu.  The  great  naval  battle  of 
Dan-no-ura,  won  by  Yoshitsune  in  1185  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Inland  Sea,  completed  the  ruin  of  the  Taira,  w’ho,  together 
with  their  Emperor,  were  nearly  all  slain  in  the  disaster  to  their 
fleet,  which  made  Yoritomo  master  of  Japan. 

Yoritomo  behaved  with  the  utmost  ingratitude  to  his  brother 
Yoshitsune,  who  had  so  largely  contributed  to  his  success. 
He  ordered  him  never  to  appear  again  at  Court,  and  sent  a 
group  of  assassins  to  pursue  him  to  the  farther  end  of  the 
island.  His  life  was  frequently  saved,  thanks  to  the  shrewd- 
ness of  the  giant  monk  Benkei  and  the  devotion  of  the  dancing- 
girl  Shidzuka.  The  adventures  of  the  brave  Yoshitsune  and 
his  death  by  suicide  has  supplied  Japanese  literature  with  a 
number  of  interesting  and  picturesque  legends  not  unlike  those 
which  delighted  our  ancestors  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

After  these  events,  the  feudal  system  was  firmly  established 
in  Japan  for  over  seven  centuries,  and  we  hear  no  more  of 
Chinese  methods  of  administration.  This  is  mainly  due  to  the 
warlike  character  of  the  Japanese  people  and  to  the  increasing 
power  of  the  feudal  chiefs,  who  had  naturally,  in  order  to 
maintain  their  reputation,  to  keep  the  country  in  a perpetual 
ferment  of  political  or  civil  war.  The  striking  difference 
between  the  feudal  system  in  Japan  and  that  which  existed 
contemporaneously  in  Europe  is  that  the  Japanese  ruler  was 
never  the  Sovereign.  He  was  called  the  Shogun,  or  Sei-i-tai- 
Shogun,  literally,  ‘ General  charged  with  the  duty  of  sub- 
jugating the  barbarians.’  This  title  was  first  bestowed  upon 
Yoritomo  in  1192.  It  was  the  Shogun’s  duty  to  govern.  In 

89 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


theory  he  was  responsible  to  the  Emperor,  whose  humble 
servant  he  was  supposed  to  be.  As  a matter  of  fact,  the 
Mikado  had  long  since  ceased  to  interfere  in  the  government, 
and  lived  in  the  palace  of  Gosho  at  Kioto  in  the  midst  of 
luxury,  his  generals  and  ministers  paying  him  no  other  respect 
than  that  of  mere  ceremony. 

The  new  power  of  the  Shogunate  instituted  by  Yoritomo 
was  not  long  before  it  also  became  attenuated.  In  1198,  imme- 
diately after  the  death  of  its  founder,  his  father-in-law,  Hojo 
Tokimasa,  seized  the  reins  of  government,  and  in  1219  the 
posterity  of  Yoritomo  was  already  extinct.  The  supreme 
authority  was  by  this  time  definitely  vested  in  the  family  of 
the  Hojo,  whose  chief  took  the  title  of  Shikken,  or  Regent, 
and  chose  and  dethroned  the  Shoguns,  usually  children,  at  his 
pleasure,  selecting  them  either  from  the  Imperial  family  or  from 
that  of  the  Fujiwaras.  The  period  during  which  this  curious 
regime  lasted  is  perhaps  the  most  brilliant  and  the  most  pros- 
perous in  the  history  of  Japan  in  the  Middle  Ages ; but 
eventually  Japan  fell  into  a sort  of  feudal  anarchy,  bearing  a 
close  affinity  to  that  which  existed  in  Germany  at  the  same 
epoch.  The  power  of  the  Hojos  was  finally  broken  in  1334, 
thanks  to  the  combined  action  of  the  feudal  lords,  aided  by  a 
Mikado  named  Go  Daigo,  who  happened  for  once  to  be  pos- 
sessed of  some  energy.  The  executive,  how'ever,  did  not 
remain  long  in  the  hands  of  this  Emperor.  His  chief  lieu- 
tenant, Ashikago  Takauji,  rose  up  against  him,  obliged  him  to 
flee  from  his  capital,  and  replaced  him  by  another  member  of 
the  Imperial  family,  at  the  same  time  electing  himself  Shogun. 
From  1337  to  1392  Japan  had  two  rival  dynasties  of  Mikados. 
Notwithstanding  these  disturbances,  the  Court  of  the  Shoguns 
Ashikagas  was  very  often  extremely  brilliant,  both  from  the 
literary  and  the  artistic  point  of  view.  During  the  fifteenth 
century  civil  wars  raged  again,  and  the  authority  of  both 
Mikado  and  Shogun  consequently  dwindled  into  insignificance. 
In  the  provinces  the  warriors,  known  as  samourai,  gradually 
became  hereditary,  recognising  no  authority  but  that  of  their 
feudal  lords,  the  daimios.  The  country  became  poor,  the 
population  rapidly  dwindled,  and  all  the  arts  except  that  of 
the  armourer  tended  to  disappear.  The  opening  years  of  the 
sixteenth  century  beheld  Japan  in  a pitiable  plight  indeed,  the 
population  decimated  by  terrible  epidemics  and  earthquakes, 
as  well  as  civil  wars,  and  such  was  her  condition  that  she  might 

90 


JAPAN 


have  been  compared  to  France  after  the  Hundred  Years’,  or 
Germany  after  the  Thirty  Years’,  War.  When  St.  Francis 
Xavier  visited  the  country  in  1550  he  was  appalled  by  its 
misery.  It  was  a far  cry  then  from  the  Japan  of  his  days  to 
the  Cipango,  the  golden  land  of  promise  so  greatly  vaunted  by 
Marco  Polo  three  centuries  earlier.  The  feudal  system  in 
Japan,  however,  had  been  of  great  use  in  forming  the  character 
of  the  people ; it  preserved  in  them  those  virile  qualities  so 
conspicuously  absent  among  the  Chinese. 

The  close  of  the  sixteenth  century  witnessed  the  decline  and 
fall  of  feudalism  throughout  the  Empire,  which  led  to  the  re- 
establishment of  centralization.  This  was  due  to  the  energy  of 
three  great  military  chiefs,  Nobunaga,  leyas,  and  Hideyoshi, 
the  first  of  whom  was  descended  from  the  Taira  and  the  second 
from  the  Minamoto,  and  therefore  both  were  essentially  aristo- 
cratic. The  third,  however,  was  about  the  only  personage  in 
medieval  Japan  who  ever  rose  from  the  ranks  to  occupy  a 
towering  position  in  the  State.  Ota  Nobunaga,  after  having 
considerably  aggrandized  the  very  small  principality  which  he 
had  inherited  from  his  father,  interfered  in  the  quarrels  of  a 
succession  of  Shoguns,  and  deposing  in  1573  the  last  Ashikaga, 
seized  the  Government  as  Prime  Minister,  and  compelled  the 
daimios  to  obey  him.  He  curbed  the  encroachments  of  the 
Buddhist  monks,  who  had  accumulated  during  the  long  period 
of  the  civil  wars  immense  landed  estates  ; but  at  last,  hemmed 
in  by  his  many  enemies,  this  remarkable  man  ended  his  career 
by  disembowelling  himself,  an  unpleasant  but  evidently  popular 
method  of  committing  suicide  with  the  Japanese. 

Hideyoshi,  who  from  groom  had  become  principal  lieutenant 
to  Nobunaga,  extinguished  all  further  spirit  of  resistance  on  the 
part  of  the  feudal  barons.  Once  Japan  was  united,  he  wished 
to  establish  its  power  beyond  the  limits  of  the  Empire,  and  for 
this  purpose  sent  an  expedition  into  Korea,  which,  however, 
only  resulted  in  ruining  that  country,  thanks  to  the  quarrels 
and  dissensions  which  took  place  between  the  Japanese 
generals,  some  of  whom  were  Christians  and  others  Buddhists. 

At  the  death  of  Hideyoshi  in  1598,  the  power  of  the  daimios, 
even  that  of  the  great  princes  of  the  south-west,  Choshiu  and 
Satsuma,  was  already  much  attenuated,  and  everything  was 
ready  for  a change  similar  to  that  which  took  place  in  France 
under  Louis  XI.  It  led  to  the  quasi-independence  of  the  lords 
being  suppressed  in  favour  of  a feudality  of  a purely  domestic 

91 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


character.  The  principal  factor  in  this  change  was  Tokugawa 
leyas,  who  had  been  one  of  the  chief  generals  of  Nobunaga 
and  Hideyoshi.  Placed  by  this  last  at  the  head  of  the  council 
of  the  regency,  which  had  to  exercise  power  during  the 
minority  of  his  son  Hideyori,  leyas  was  not  long  before  he 
quarrelled  with  his  co-regents.  Assuming  the  command  of  an 
army,  recruited  in  the  north  and  the  east  of  the  Empire,  he 
in  1600  defeated  at  Sekigahara  the  united  forces  of  the  clans 
of  the  south  and  the  west,  and  thus  made  himself  master  of 
Japan.  Instead  of  a purely  ephemeral  sovereignty,  he  founded 
a dynasty  and  a regime  which  lasted  for  250  years,  as  the  result 
of  his  ability  and  that  of  his  son  and  grandson.  Before  pro- 
ceeding further  in  detailing  the  political  and  social  organization 
of  this  interesting  country,  it  will  be  well  to  pause  and  consider 
an  event  of  supreme  importance  which  took  place  in  the  six- 
teenth century,  and  the  effect  of  which  explains  much  that  is 
now  happening.  I refer  to  the  period  of  the  great  Portuguese 
colonization,  when  that  now  small  kingdom  had  annexed  vast 
possessions  in  the  Indies,  and  had  added  new  ones  in  Cochin 
China  and  in  the  south  of  China  to  her  Empire. 

In  1542,  three  Portuguese,  who  had  taken  passage  on  board 
a Chinese  junk,  were  wrecked  upon  the  southern  coast  of 
Japan.  Among  the  other  passengers  happened  to  be  a China- 
man, who  volunteered  as  interpreter.  He  seems,  however,  to 
have  entertained  for  foreigners  the  same  contempt  as  that  in 
which  they  are  held  by  his  compatriots  in  this  year  of  grace 
1900.  He  described  the  Portuguese  to  the  Japanese  as  people 
who  were  very  little  better  than  savages,  who  did  not  know  how 
to  write  Chinese,  and  as  being,  moreover,  profoundly  ignorant 
of  the  art  of  eating  their  food  with  chopsticks.  We  may 
conclude,  therefore,  that  these  worthy  Portuguese  did  not 
produce  a very  favourable  impression.  In  1545,  the  navigator 
Fernan  Mendez  Pinto  arrived  at  the  little  island  of  Tanega- 
shima,  to  the  south  of  Kiu-Siu,  and  was  well  received  by  the 
feudal  lord  of  that  district.  The  powerful  Prince  of  Bungo, 
father-in-law  to  the  Lord  of  Tanegashima,  having  heard  of  the 
strangers,  invited  them  to  his  capital  in  the  north-east  of  Kiu- 
Siu,  and  entertained  them  very  handsomely.  Pinto  was  so 
favourably  impressed  by  all  he  saw  that  two  years  later  he 
returned  to  the  same  spot,  carrying  off  with  him  two  Japanese 
fugitives  from  justice.  They  had  the  fortune  of  being  converted 
to  Christianity  by  St.  Francis  Xavier,  and  served  him  as  in- 

92 


JAPAN 


terpreters  when  the  renowned  Jesuit  missionary  landed  on 
August  15,  1549,  at  Kagoshima,  the  capital  of  the  Prince  of 
Satsuma.  The  earliest  converts  were  a few  relatives  of  the  in- 
terpreters. The  Prince  received  the  saint  very  favourably,  and 
the  Princess  insisted  upon  him  composing  for  her  benefit  a 
summary  of  the  Articles  of  the  Christian  Faith,  together  with 
the  translation  of  the  principal  prayers.  St.  Francis  immediately 
edited  a Japanese  version  of  the  Catechism  and  a translation  of 
the  Credo.  Unfortunately,  in  the  course  of  time  the  Prince  of 
Satsuma  was  much  offended  by  certain  Portuguese  sailors,  who, 
probably  on  account  of  the  obstacles  they  encountered  in  the 
attempt,  refused  to  land  in  his  dominions,  and  betook  them- 
selves and  their  merchandise  further  on  to  those  of  his 
rivals.  Greatly  annoyed  at  their  behaviour,  the  prince  now 
ordered  the  missionaries  to  quit  his  dominions.  St.  Francis 
obeyed  and  proceeded  to  the  capital  of  the  Prince  of  Bungo,  who 
was  highly  delighted  to  see  him,  and  assisted  him  in  a number 
of  ways  to  found  churches  and  missions,  so  that  when  the  great 
missionary  left  Japan  in  1551,  Christianity  was  fairly  established 
in  the  country.  Presently  Japan  was  inundated  with  Portu- 
guese missionaries,  sailors,  and  merchants.  The  Japanese, 
with  an  eye  as  much  to  business  as  to  social  improvement, 
encouraged  this  influx  of  strangers  in  the  hope  of  its  lead- 
ing to  a profitable  commerce  being  established  between 
the  two  countries.  The  Jesuits,  too,  whose  influence  the 
Japanese  quickly  recognised,  were  treated  with  the  utmost 
cordiality  and  respect.  So  great  was  the  Japanese  power  of 
assimilation,  that  Mendez  Pinto  tells  us  that,  having  made  a 
present  of  an  arquebus  to  the  Prince  of  Tanegashima,  that 
potentate  caused  it  to  be  imitated,  and  very  soon  afterwards 
the  navigator  was  shown  six  weapons  exactly  like  his  own.  A 
few  months  later  there  were  30,000  distributed  in  the  province 
of  Bungo,  and  300,000  throughout  the  country.  These  figures 
may  be  taken  with  a grain  of  salt ; nevertheless,  there  must  have 
been  a very  firm  foundation  for  the  story.  In  1582,  forty  years 
after  the  arrival  of  the  Portuguese,  artillery  played  a great 
part  in  the  Battle  of  Shigutake,  one  of  Hideyoshi’s  greatest 
victories. 

Whether  material  or  spiritual  motives  were  at  the  bottom  of 
the  rapid  progress  made  by  Christianity  at  this  period  it  would 
be  difficult  to  say.  Princes,  literary  men,  priests,  even  Bud- 
dhists, rich  and  poor  alike,  presented  themselves  in  hundreds  to 

93 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 

receive  baptism,  and  even  Nobunaga,  if  he  did  not  actuall> 
profess  the  new  religion,  at  any  rate  favoured  its  propaganda. 
At  the  time  of  his  death  in  1582  there  were  fully  600,000  con- 
verts in  the  centre  and  the  south  of  Japan  ; half  the  daimios 
in  the  island  of  Kiu-Siu  had  embraced  Christianity,  together 
with  the  greater  part  of  their  subjects  ; the  Prince  of  Tosa,  in 
the  island  of  Sikokou,  and  many  daimios  in  the  centre  and 
west  of  the  great  island  had  also  been  baptized.  There  were 
not  less  than  200  churches,  some  of  which  were  even  situated 
in  the  capital  of  the  Empire.  In  Nagasaki,  which  in  1567  had 
become  the  centre  of  foreign  commerce,  there  was  scarcely  a 
pagan  left.  In  1582  an  embassy,  sent  to  Rome  by  the  Princes 
of  Bungo,  Arima  and  Omura,  was  solemnly  received  by  Pope 
Sixtus  V.  It  afterwards  proceeded  on  a tour  through  Portugal, 
Spain,  and  Italy.  Although  Hideyoshi  apparently  did  not 
display  the  same  enthusiasm  for  Christianity  as  did  his  neigh- 
bours, nevertheless,  their  number  continued  to  increase ; and 
during  the  last  ten  years  of  the  sixteenth  century  it  is  believed 
there  were  over  a million  converts  to  the  Roman  Church  out 
of  a population  of  between  eight  or  ten  millions,  a marvellous 
record  for  fifty  years’  missionary  labour.  Unfortunately,  it  was 
not  to  last  long,  although,  to  be  sure,  the  brief  epoch  of  its 
success  was  marked  by  a material  progress  quite  as  astonishing 
as  the  spiritual,  for,  with  the  religion  of  the  Europeans,  the 
Japanese  had  adopted  a great  many  of  their  arts  and  industries. 
Tobacco,  for  instance,  began  to  be  cultivated,  and  boats  built 
on  European  models  transported  Japanese  trade  as  far  afield 
as  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Strangers  could  travel  from  one  end 
of  the  country  to  the  other  without  fear  of  being  molested  by 
the  natives,  and  St.  Francis  Xavier  had  every  reason  to  say 
that  the  ‘ Jajranese  nation  was  the  delight  of  his  heart.’  Pre- 
sently Hideyoshi  became  alarmed  lest  the  system  of  govern- 
ment which  he  had  formulated  might  eventually  be  overthrown 
through  the  missionaries  and  by  possible  religious  wars  occa- 
sioned by  so  abrupt  a change  in  the  opinions  and  ethics  of  an 
entire  nation.  He  feared  lest  the  admission  into  the  country 
of  so  many  merchants  and  missionaries  might  not  be  the 
prelude  to  another  invasion  of  a hostile  character,  resulting  in 
the  conquest  and  annexation  of  Japan  to  some  European 
power  or  other.  It  is  even  said  that  a Portuguese  captain  was 
sufficiently  imprudent  to  inform  Hideyoshi  that  the  King,  his 
master,  had  the  intention  of  sending  priests  into  the  dominions 

94 


JAPAN 


of  the  Mikado  with  the  object  of  ultimately  landing  troops, 
who,  aided  by  the  native  Christians,  should  effect  his  overthrow. 
Whether  these  w'ords  were  ever  spoken  or  not  is  uncertain,  but 
they  were  undoubtedly  the  expression  of  the  thoughts  of  con- 
tempf)rary  European  Sovereigns,  a fact  which  the  Japanese 
soon  learnt  when  they  came  to  be  a little  better  acquainted 
with  the  proceedings  of  the  Portuguese  in  India.  In  a word, 
the  suspicions  of  the  Japanese  rulers  were  awakened,  and  even 
the  brilliant  services  rendered  by  the  Christian  General  Konishi 
could  not  efface  them,  and  the  impression  was  further  increased 
by  the  rivalry  which  existed  between  the  Jesuits  and  the  Fran- 
ciscans, and  also  between  the  Portuguese,  the  Spaniards,  the 
English  and  the  Dutch,  who  were  perpetually  accusing  each 
other  of  most  malevolent  designs.  In  1587  Hideyoshi  issued  an 
edict  ordering  all  missionaries  to  leave  Japan  within  twenty-four 
days,  which,  however,  remained  a dead-letter  until  1597,  when 
it  was  put  into  force — in  consequence  of  the  imprudence  of  the 
Spanish  Franciscans,  who  began  preaching  in  the  open  air,  and 
even  in  the  streets  of  Kioto,  which  resulted  in  a riot  and  in  seven- 
teen native  Christians  being  put  to  death  at  Nagasaki.  leyas 
continued  the  persecution  throughout  1614,  as  did  his  son  and 
grandson,  who,  between  them,  contrived  to  extirpate  Christianity 
in  every  part  of  the  Empire  before  1638.  For  years  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Nagasaki  were  condemned  to  trample  upon  the  Crucifix 
in  the  presence  of  the  authorities,  and  even  as  late  as  1868 
placards  were  still  to  be  seen  stuck  up  in  the  streets  offering 
rewards  for  the  denunciation  of  members  of  the  ‘ forbidden, 
lying,  and  corrupt  sect.’ 

The  immediate  result  of  this  persecution,  which  was  ex- 
tremely severe,  was  the  exclusion  from  Japan  of  all  outside 
influence,  for  the  foreigner  and  Christianity  bad  become  in  the 
eyes  of  the  Government  a moral,  social,  as  well  as  political 
dissolvent.  The  evil  conduct  of  the  European  sailors,  who, 
even  according  to  the  statement  of  the  missionaries  themselves, 
had  carried  off  women  and  children  in  great  numbers,  to  sell 
into  slavery  at  Manila  or  Macao,  and  their  dissolute  behaviour 
generally,  cast  opprobrium  upon  the  religion  which  they  pro- 
fessed, and  thus  it  came  to  pass  that  the  Japanese  accused  the 
Christians  of  not  practising  the  ethics  they  taught,  but,  on  the 
contrary,  of  giving  a bad  example  by  their  disrespect  to  parents, 
superiors,  and  to  all  in  authority. 

In  1609  and  1611  leyas  granted  the  Dutch  the  right  of 

95 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


trading  all  over  the  island,  but  his  son,  Hidetada,  being 
suspicious  of  their  good  intentions,  closed  all  harbours  to 
them,  excepting  those  of  Hirado  and  Nagasaki  in  the  island  of 
Kiu-Siu,  and,  furthermore,  prohibited  the  Japanese  from 
leaving  their  country  under  any  pretext.  From  1637  the 
Dutch  and  the  Chinese  alone  were  authorized  to  trade  in 
Japanese  waters,  and  then  only  through  the  port  of  Nagasaki. 
Confined  within  the  narrow  limits  of  the  island  of  Deshima, 
condemned  to  submit  to  the  most  abject  humiliations,  and 
never  allowed  to  go  ashore  excepting  once  a year  on  a special 
mission  to  Yedo,  when  they  conveyed  presents  to  the  Shogun, 
before  whom  they  had  to  crawl  upon  their  hands  and  knees, 
the  agents  of  the  Dutch  East  India  Company  entertained  with 
Japan  commercial  relations  of  the  scantiest  kind.  With  this 
sole  exception,  Japan,  which  had  acted  in  so  liberal  a manner 
towards  foreigners,  became  in  a short  time  a sealed  book  to 
the  outer  world. 


96 


CHAPTER  II 

JAPAN  AND  THE  REVOLUTION  OF  1 868 

Progress  demoralized  in  Japan  under  the  Shoguns  Tokugawa — Imperial 
Court,  Mikado  and  kuges,  feudal  society,  Shogun,  Daimios,  samourai, 
and  people — Foundation  of  the  political  regime — Military  preponder- 
ance of  the  Shogun — Seclusion  of  the  Mikado — Divisions  among  the 
Daimios — Exclusion  of  strangers — Artistic  development  and  economy 
— Progress  of  civilization — Decline  of  the  Shogunate — Position  of 
Japan  in  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century — Foreigners  begin  to 
re  enter  the  country  in  1854 — Scandal  created  by  the  opening  of  the 
ports — The  Court  and  the  clans  in  the  south-west  provinces  hostile 
both  to  Western  civilization  and  the  Shoguns — Fall  of  the  Shogunate 
— Restoration  of  the  Mikado  and  introduction  of  European  civiliza- 
tion. • 

We  have  already  seen  that  the  Emperor,  or  Mikado,  was 
deprived  of  all  authority,  and  retained  only  the  outward 
attributes  of  his  Imperial  dignity.  He  dwelt  in  his  palace  of 
Gosho  surrounded  by  155  ktiges,  or  noble  families,  all  of  whom 
were  descended  from  the  Imperial  house,  but  whose  duties 
were  merely  ceremonial.  In  order  to  prevent  any  possibility 
on  their  part  of  the  kuges  interfering  with  him,  leyas  reduced 
the  Court  to  absolute  poverty.  He  fixed  the  civil  list  of  the 
Mikado — according  to  custom,  in  kind — at  9,000  kokus,*  or 
44,550  bushels  of  rice ; as  to  the  kuges,  many  of  them  lived  in 
the  most  straightened  circumstances.  To  still  more  completely 
isolate  the  Mikado  the  feudal  princes  were  never  on  any 
pretext  allowed  to  enter  Kioto. 

These  princes,  or  daimios,  who  were  the  leaders  of  the 
military  order,  of  whom  the  Shogun  was  the  chief,  were  divided 
into  five  classes,  according  to  their  precedence  and  importance; 
firstly,  the  three  great  Gosank6  families,  who  reigned  over  the 
provinces  of  Owari,  Kii  and  Mito,  and  were  descended  from 
• A koku  equals  4^95  bushels. 

97 


H 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


the  three  elder  sons  of  leyas  ; they  enjoyed  the  privilege  of 
electing  from  amongst  their  number  the  Shogun  in  case  of  the 
failure  of  direct  heirs ; secondly,  the  sixteen  kokushu  daimios, 
whose  ancestors  possessed  their  fiefdoms  before  the  elevation 
of  leyas,  which  he  had  considerably  reduced  as  a punishment 
for  their  having  taken  up  arms  against  him,  and  whose  revenues 
ranged  between  750,000  and  5,000,000  bushels  ; thirdly,  the 
nineteen  kammons;  daimios,  who  were  the  immediate  relatives 
or  vassals  of  the  Tokugawas,  and  descendants  of  leyas’ 
favourite  generals,  among  whom  he  distributed  the  fiefdoms  he 
had  confiscated  from  his  enemies  : they  were  eventually  the 
chief  supporters  of  the  Shogunate,  being,  however,  not  so  rich 
as  the  above,  possessing  only  between  50,000  and  1,600,000 
bushels  of  revenue ; fourthly,  the  88  tozamma  daimios  ; and 
fifthly,  the  no  foudai  daimios,  who  were  not  infrequently 
cadets  of  one  of  the  two  preceding  classes.  They  possessed 
an  income  of  at  least  50,000  bushels,  but  rarely  more,  and 
their  estates  were  proportionally  small.  Nevertheless,  there 
were  eight  tozammas  and  sixteen  foudais  who  enjoyed  between 
them  a revenue  of  500,000  bushels,  and,  who,  when  united, 
were  sufficiently  powerful  to  be  very  troublesome. 

Next  came  the  samouraiy  forming  about  a twentieth  of  the 
entire  population  of  the  Empire.  They  were  a distinct  military 
class  under  the  daimios,  and  were  distinguished  by  wearing, 
even  in  infancy,  the  two  swords  leyas  called  the  ‘ living  soul 
of  the  samourai.’  Excepting  in  one  or  two  principalities  at 
the  extreme  south,  notably  at  Satsuma,  they  were  never  agricul- 
turists, but,  despising  all  manual  labour,  lived  on  salaries  paid 
by  their  chief.  Exceedingly  brave  and  punctilious  in  all  points 
of  honour,  they  were  addicted  to  vendetta,  and  added  to  their 
other  peculiarities  the  ferocious  custom  of  hara-kiri,  which 
obliged  them  on  the  least  insult  to  disembowel  themselves 
with  a small  sword,  an  unpleasant  rite  into  which  they  were 
initiated  when  still  very  young.  They  were  ever  ready  to  shed 
their  blood  for  their  prince  and  fanatically  attached  to  their 
clan.  It  was  from  them  that  the  troops,  as  well  as  all  the 
minor  officials  in  the  various  principalities,  were  recruited. 
The  samourai  were  not  only  military,  but  literary,  and  corre- 
sponded to  our  professional  classes,  and  their  opinions  only 
had  the  slightest  influence  on  the  affairs  of  the  country. 
When  a samourai,  for  some  reason  or  other,  found  himself 
without  a master,  either  because  he  had  been  expelled  from 

98 


JAPAN 


his  service  or  his  lord  had  been  deprived  by  the  Shogun  of 
his  titles  and  estates,  he  sometimes  turned  ronin^  or  knight- 
errant,  more  often  than  not  a brigand,  and  occasionally  a 
redresser  of  wrongs,  but  as  a rule  a fellow  capable  of  the  worst 
sort  of  crime  as  well  as  of  the  most  heroic  acts  of  chivalry. 
In  times  of  trouble  these  ronin  were  wont  to  form  themselves 
into  bands  and  offer  their  services  to  a popular  prince,  and 
when  accepted,  their  opinion  and  influence  sometimes  became 
of  considerable  weight. 

Nineteen-twentieths  of  the  population  consisted  of  the  heimin, 
or  commoners.  Of  this  class  the  peasantry  was  by  far  the 
most  numerous  and  esteemed.  Next  came  the  artisans,  then 
the  merchants,  for  be  it  remembered  that  feudal  Japan,  like 
feudal  Europe,  held  trade  and  tradesmen  in  supreme  contempt. 
Finally  the  two  classes  of  pariahs,  the  eta,  or  ‘ dirty  people,’ 
who  followed  the  profession  of  leather-dressers,  tanners,  curriers, 
knackers,  grave-diggers,  etc.,  then  the  hinin  (not  men),  and  the 
beggars. 

Only  on  certain  rare  occasions,  when  a daimio  wished  to 
increase  the  number  of  his  men-at-arms,  and  recruited  some  of 
his  samourai  from  the  hemin,  or,  again,  when  a ronin,  tired  of 
vagabondage,  embraced  some  trade  or  other  and  contrived  to 
lose  himself  among  the  people,  were  the  barriers  between  class 
and  class  ever  broken  down,  and  thus  society  in  Japan  remained 
strictly  confined  within  its  narrow  boundaries  for  over  two 
centuries.  Notwithstanding  these  restrictions,  the  country 
enjoyed  during  this  period  a profound  peace  and  great  pros- 
perity. Both  leyas  and  lemitsu  understood  to  perfection  how 
to  apply  the  maxim,  ‘ Divide  in  order  to  reign,’  whereby  they 
broke  up  the  influence  of  the  daimios,  which,  when  united, 
might  have  proved  formidable.  This  they  contrived  to  do  by 
isolating  them  from  the  Imperial  Court,  and  creating  between 
them  divergences  of  interest,  and  by  fermenting  among  them 
a spirit  of  hatred  and  jealousy.  leyas  had  not  dared  dispossess 
all  his  adversaries  after  his  victory,  but  he  confiscated  a part  at 
least  of  their  domains,  out  of  which  he  created  a number  of 
fiefs,  which  he  distributed  among  his  allies  and  soldiers.  The 
descendants  of  these,  the  kammong  and  foudai  princes,  being 
ever  at  war  with  the  kokushu  and  the  tozamma,  obtained  pro- 
tection from  the  Shoguns  by  establishing  a common  bond  of 
interest,  being  fully  aware  that  the  downfall  of  the  Tokugawas 
would  be  sure  to  involve  their  own. 

99 


H 2 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


A danger  undoubtedly  presented  itself  to  the  south-east 
of  the  Empire,  for  here  the  domains  of  the  kokushu  princes 
of  Choshiu,  Satsuma  and  Hizen  and  others  nearly  as  powerful 
formed  a continuous  line  of  territory,  and  consequently  a storm 
rising  in  that  quarter  might  have  been  fatal  to  the  Shogunate  ; 
but  so  long  as  these  great  vassals  received  no  support  from 
a foreign  power,  the  military  preponderance  of  the  Shogun 
was  safe.  This  state  of  affairs  eventually  gave  rise  to  a 
rigorous  exclusion  of  foreigners.  Divided  among  themselves, 
isolated  from  all  external  influences,  deprived  of  all  communi- 
cation with  the  Court,  the  daimios  in  due  time  lost  a great  deal 
of  influence  in  their  own  principalities.  By  virtue  of  the 
Sankin  law,  promulgated  in  1635  by  lemitsu,  and  solemnly 
ratified  by  the  Mikado,  they  were  compelled  to  sojourn  at  least 
one  year  out  of  two  at  Yedo.  and  to  leave  their  women  and 
children  during  the  following  year  in  that  capital  as  hostages. 
In  this  manner  their  initiative  was  enfeebled,  and  as  they  were 
obliged  in  great  part  to  leave  the  administration  of  their  own 
affairs  in  the  hands  of  subordinates,  they  soon  became  mere 
idlers,  under  the  constant  super\’ision  of  a swarm  of  spies,  who 
reported  to  the  Shogun  any  attempt  on  their  part  to  resist  his 
authority,  or  to  conspire  against  him.  Notwithstanding  its 
many  drawbacks,  this  administrative  system,  although  it  un- 
questionably weakened  the  political  character  of  the  Japanese, 
was  in  the  long-run,  by  securing  a prolonged  peace,  exceedingly 
beneficial  to  the  country,  especially  as  regards  the  development 
of  art  and  literature,  and  it  is  from  the  period  of  the  Tokugawas 
that  dates  all  that  is  finest  in  Japanese  architecture,  painting, 
sculpture,  lacquering,  including  the  temples  of  Nikko  and  the 
noblest  specimens  of  Satsuma  faience.  In  the  meantime  civiliza- 
tion had  made  rapid  progress,  and  the  intellectual  influence  of 
China  upon  Japan  was  paramount.  The  Chinese  classics, 
formerly  neglected  by  the  Japanese,  were  now,  thanks  to  the 
initiative  of  leyas,  studied  with  ardour  both  at  the  Court  of 
his  successors  and  at  that  of  the  Mikado,  and  were  even  publicly 
taught  in  the  ever-increasing  number  of  schools.  And  thus  it 
came  to  pass  that  when  the  Europeans  returned  in  1854  they 
found  Japan  more  completely  under  the  influence  of  Chinese  art 
and  literature  than  had  their  ancestors  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

The  causes  which  brought  about  the  revolution  of  1868, 
which  resulted  in  the  suppression  of  the  Shogunate  and  of 
feudalism,  and  in  the  rapid  introduction  of  European  civiliza- 

100 


JAPAN 

tion,  were  quite  as  important  and  as  deeply  rooted  in  the  hearts 
of  the  people  of  Japan  as  were  those  which  led  to  the  French 
Revolution  in  1789,  which,  it  will  be  remembered,  had  been 
brewing  for  a very  long  time  before  its  eventual  outbreak. 
Politically,  the  decadence  of  the  Shogunate  commenced  in 
1652,  after  the  death  of  lemitsu,  and  especially  at  the  beginning 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  when  the  Tokugawas  began  gradually 
to  decline,  precisely  as  had  done  the  various  dynasties  that  had 
preceded  them.  Surrounded  by  a brilliant  court  and  en- 
lightened patrons  both  of  arts  and  letters,  the  Shoguns  dis- 
dained occupying  themselves  with  public  affairs,  which  they 
left  in  the  hands  of  the  Gorogio,  a council  composed  of  five 
foudai  daimios  and  their  subordinates.  This  substitution  of  a 
rather  effete  bureaucracy  for  the  old  but  energetic  feudal 
system  soon  inspired  the  great  vassals  with  a hope  of  being  able 
to  overthrow  their  former  masters.  They  perceived  that  it  was 
easy  to  pick  a hole  in  the  Shogunate  from  the  doctrinal  point 
of  view,  even  in  the  name  of  those  very  Confucian  theories 
upon  which  they  had  the  pretension  to  base  their  supremacy. 
As  a matter  of  fact,  although  the  system  of  paternal  government 
extolled  by  the  illustrious  Chinese  philosopher  is  by  no  means 
opposed  to  feudalism,  when  closely  examined  into,  it  shows 
that  there  was  no  place  in  it  for  the  Shogunate,  since  it  does 
not  admit  of  any  intermediary  between  the  father  and  his 
children. 

At  the  same  time,  in  the  eighteenth  century  a whole  college 
of  literary  men  and  a distinct  school  of  literature  rose, 
whose  principal  object  was  the  study  of  the  ancient  texts,  to 
collate,  publish,  and  interpret  them,  whereby  certain  political 
and  religious  conclusions  were  arrived  at,  tending  to  prove 
that  the  only  legitimate  power  in  Japan  was  the  autocracy  of 
the  Mikado,  the  descendant  of  the  gods,  and  the  only  true 
religion  Shintoism,  and  that  patriotism,  moreover,  demanded 
the  restoration  of  the  ancient  political  and  social  organization 
which  had  existed  in  the  Empire  long  before  the  introduction 
of  Buddhism,  feudalism,  and  of  Chinese  ideas  in  general.  If 
these  theories  did  not  interest  the  people,  they  certainly,  and 
very  effectively,  created  a breach  between  the  literary  classes 
and  the  samourai,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  Shogunate  and 
its  supporters,  who  by  this  time  had  become  not  only  un- 
popular with  the  productive  classes  of  the  nation,  but  were 
even  looked  upon  in  the  light  of  a tax,  against  which  the 

lOI 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


people  very  naturally  rebelled,  failing  to  see  why  they  should 
be  called  upon  to  support  an  idle  and  otherwise  useless  caste. 

In  1700  the  Government,  financially  embarrassed,  was  com- 
pelled to  diminish  the  number  of  charges  imposed  upon  it  by 
the  feudal  system,  and  to  increase  taxation,  whereupon  the 
merchants  deemed  it  prudent  to  conceal  the  exact  amount  of 
their  fortunes,  and  the  peasants,  who  paid  their  lords  a third 
or  a half  of  t eir  harvests,  were  not  infrequently  ransomed  by 
the  ro/iin.  Under  these  circumstances  the  feudal  system  could 
no  longer  endure,  since  it  was  now  brought  into  contact  with  a 
society  richer  and  better  organized  than  itself,  and  thus  it 
became  impossible  for  the  Japanese  Government  to  prevent 
the  penetration  into  the  Empire  of  European  ideas,  which 
filtered  through  the  one  port,  Nagasaki,  left  partially  open  for 
the  benefit  of  the  Dutch.  From  the  eighteenth  century  on- 
wards certain  young  samourai  were  always  to  be  found  at  this 
port  endeavouring  to  place  themselves  in  contact  with  the 
Dutch.  The  Shogun  Tzunayoshi  (1650-1709)  pretended  not 
to  notice  what  was  happening,  although  his  Government  was 
ostentatiously  endeavouring  to  repress  any  kind  of  inter- 
communication between  the  natives  and  foreigners. 

It  appears  that  medicine  was  the  first  science  which  excited 
the  interest  of  the  youthful  Japanese  students.  They  at  first 
managed  to  obtain  from  the  Dutch  some  books,  containing 
anatomical  plates,  which  both  interested  and  surprised  them 
on  account  of  the  great  difference  which  existed  between  the 
figures  represented  in  these  works  and  the  fantastic  theories 
invented  by  the  Chinese  doctors.  At  considerable  risk,  for  the 
laws  on  tbe  subject  were  extremely  severe,  they  secretly  ex- 
perimented upon  a corpse,  in  order  to  compare  the  results 
with  the  anatomical  sketches  they  had  obtained  from  Europe. 
This  led  to  their  procuring  a Dutch  treatise  on  anatomy,  which, 
with  great  difficulty,  they  translated  into  Japanese,  spending 
sometimes  as  much  as  a whole  day  upon  a single  phrase. 
Before  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  several  Dutch- 
Japanese  dictionaries  were  compiled,  and  a good  many 
European  works  were  translated  and  published  privately,  and 
read  with  all  that  ardour  which  fear  of  persecution  ever  en- 
genders. 

Before  the  commencement  of  the  present  century  these 
studies  produced  practical  results,  and  the  country  was  peppered 
with  furnaces  and  windmills  built  after  Dutch  models.  It  led, 

102 


JAPAN 


also,  to  the  introduction  of  several  novel  industries,  which  were 
evidently  inspired  by  some  occult  European  influence.  How- 
ever feeble  these  beginnings  may  have  been,  both  European 
and  modern  Japanese  writers  attach  a great  importance  to  this 
early  initiation  of  a certain  number  of  able  and  learned  men  to 
at  least  one  of  the  languages,  and  to  some  of  the  sciences  of 
the  West.  It  prepared  the  way  for  many  ardent  advocates  of 
European  civilization  to  influence  the  Japanese  to  accept 
European  ideas.  This  was  the  impression  conveyed  to  me  at 
Tokio  by  that  very  able  gentleman  Mr.  Fukuzawa,  the  editor 
of  the  most  important  newspaper  published  in  Tokio,  the  Jiji 
Shimpo,  or  ‘ Times,’  who  is  also  founder  and  director  of  one  of 
the  largest  free  schools  in  Japan.  He  himself  had  studied 
Dutch  between  1840  and  1850,  when  quite  a young  man,  and 
showed  me  a book  translated  from  the  Dutch  and  published  in 
Tokio  in  1770.  ‘The  days,’  said  he,  ‘of  the  old  regime  in 
Japan  were  counted  when  in  1854  the  Americans  forced  my 
country  to  open  her  ports,  and  the  Shogunate,  which  had 
become  exceedingly  unpopular,  undermined  on  all  sides, 
crumbled  to  the  dust.’ 

The  situation  of  Japan  in  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 
century  was  therefore  not  unlike  that  of  France  on  the  eve 
of  the  Revolution ; but,  fortunately,  above  the  honeycombed 
Government,  doomed  to  fall  at  the  first  serious  outbreak  of 
popular  displeasure,  Japan  possessed  the  Imperial  dynasty,  a 
power  universally  respected,  all  the  more  so  because  it  was 
so  completely  exempt  from  interference  in  public  affairs; 
towards  it  every  heart  turned  in  the  hour  of  trouble,  and  the 
remarkable  reforms  were  accepted  in  its  name  as  proceed- 
ing from  a Sovereign  who  ruled  by  Divine  right.  In  1853 
an  event  occurred  which  more  than  any  other  tended  to  the 
overthrow  of  the  Shogunate.  An  American  squadron,  consist- 
ing of  four  men-of-war,  under  the  command  of  Commodore 
Perry,  appeared  in  the  Bay  of  Yedo  with  the  object  of  present- 
ing a letter  from  the  President  of  the  United  States  to  the 
Shogun  demanding  the  conclusion  of  a treaty  of  commerce  and 
the  opening  of  the  ports.  It  was  in  vain  that  the  Bakufu  (the 
Government  of  Yedo)  tried  to  induce  the  Commodore  to 
proceed  to  Nagasaki  and  to  employ  the  mediation  of  the 
Dutch  and  Chinese.  Perry  replied  that  he  would  only  accord 
a few  months  for  the  delivery  of  the  answer  he  demanded,  and 
promised  to  return  and  fetch  it  in  the  following  year.  The 

103 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


Government  of  Yedo  was  taken  by  surprise,  and  feeling  that 
it  was  impossible  to  resist  the  importunate  and  imperative 
strangers,  and  alarmed  at  the  grave  consequences  which  might 
result  from  the  opening  out  of  the  country,  addressed  a circular 
to  the  daimios  detailing  the  facts  and  asking  their  advice.  Some 
of  them  suggested  the  opening  of  only  one  or  two  ports  for  a 
limited  time,  say  three  or  four  years,  as  an  experiment,  but  the 
greater  number — Prince  Mito,  chief  of  the  house  of  Tokugawa, 
at  their  head — were  of  a contrary  opinion,  and  counselled  that 
no  concession  should  be  granted,  and  that  the  country  should 
forthwith  arm  itself  and  prepare  for  resistance.  Nevertheless, 
when  Perry  returned  some  time  afterwards,  a treaty  was  signed 
permitting  the  opening  of  the  two  ports  of  Shimoda  and 
Hakodate,  and,  moreover,  granting  permission  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  an  American  consulate  (1854).  This  official  took 
up  his  residence  in  1857,  just  as  France,  England,  and  Russia 
had  frightened  the  Shogun  by  a naval  display  into  granting 
them  like  privileges,  which  were  still  further  augmented  by  a 
new  convention  promulgated  in  1858. 

The  prolonged  isolation  in  which  the  feudal  lords  of  Japan 
had  hitherto  lived  had  filled  them  with  a horror  of  all  things 
foreign,  so  that  the  concessions  made  by  the  Shogun  very 
naturally  produced  an  extraordinary  fermentation  among  the 
military  classes,  who  considered  all  these  privileges  bestowed 
upon  the  barbarians  as  so  many  outrages  to  the  national  dignity. 
The  Imperial  Court  was  not  less  scandalized.  When  the 
Mikado  first  heard  of  the  arrival  of  so  many  Westerners  on  the 
sacred  soil  of  Japan,  he  ordered  public  prayers  to  be  said  at 
Ise,  the  most  holy  temple  in  Japan,  and  presently  a secret 
understanding  was  arrived  at  between  the  Court  of  Kioto  and 
the  clans  in  the  south-west,  who,  although  they  were  perfectly 
sincere  in  their  detestation  of  the  strangers,  nevertheless  thought 
this  incident  afforded  an  excellent  chance  for  satisfying  their 
hereditary  rancour  against  the  Tokugawa  and  a possibility  of 
annihilating  their  power.  When  confronted  by  these  dangers, 
the  Shogun  endeavoured  to  shirk  his  responsibility,  and  turned 
to  the  Mikado,  asking  him  to  confirm  the  treaties  which  he 
had  himself  concluded.  A statesman  of  great  energy  and  of 
progressive  tendencies,  li-Kammon  no-Kami,  now  determined 
to  intimidate  the  Mikado  and  obtain  from  him  at  any  cost  the 
desired  signature,  which  under  such  circumstances  at  another 
period  would  have  been  a mere  formality.  But  this  able  man 

104 


JAPAN 


was  assassinated  in  i860  by  the  ronin,  who,  in  accordance 
with  Japanese  usage,  presently  published  a patriotic  declara- 
tion justifying  their  crime.  Needless  to  say,  the  Shogun,  in 
his  vain  attempt  to  reconcile  both  parties,  fell  to  the  ground, 
like  the  man  in  the  proverb  who  sought  to  seat  himself  between 
two  stools.  The  audacity  of  his  adversaries  increased,  and  the 
Imperial  Court  and  the  daimios  began  to  interfere  without  the 
slightest  hesitation  in  the  affairs  of  State.  In  1862,  against 
all  precedent,  the  Prince  of  Satsuma,  in  going  to  Yedo,  passed 
by  Kioto,  and  undertook  to  escort  thither  a huge,  who  was 
carrying  Imperial  despatches  to  the  Shogun,  and  invited  him 
to  appear  before  the  Emperor.  The  Bakufu  now  found  itself 
so  absolutely  powerless  that  it  was  obliged  to  submit  to  all 
demands,  including  destitutions  and  reintegrations  of  dig- 
nitaries, together  with  the  permission  for  the  daimios  to  leave 
Yedo  with  their  families ; and  thus  was  the  first  step  taken 
towards  the  ultimate  ruin  of  the  time-honoured  Shogunate. 

For  the  first  time  in  two  hundred  and  thirty  years  a Shogun 
— a minor — went  up  to  Kioto  in  March,  1863,  preceded  by  the 
Regent.  The  Mikado  left  his  palace,  and,  contrary  to  secular 
etiquette,  went  in  solemn  state  to  the  temple  of  the  God  of 
War,  where  he  bestowed  the  sword  of  honour  upon  the  Shogun 
as  the  ensign  of  supreme  command  with  which  he  was  to  expel 
the  barbarians.  The  Shogun’s  second  visit  to  Kioto  in  1864, 
on  the  other  hand,  witnessed  his  complete  abasement ; for  the 
Court  no  longer  accepted  his  decrees,  and  refused  him  any 
further  control  over  their  finances.  In  a word,  from  being 
master  he  had  now  become  servant.  Amongst  those  who  im- 
mediately surrounded  the  Emperor,  there  were  still  many  who 
revolted  at  the  idea  of  his  being  allowed  to  occupy  himself 
with  the  government  of  the  Empire,  and  their  so  doing  gave 
the  rebel  clans  in  the  south-west  time  to  reorganize  them- 
selves. After  a short  attempt  at  revolt,  they  soon  came  to  the 
conclusion  that  further  dissensions  would  only  play  into  the 
hands  of  their  enemies,  and  from  1865  the  majority  of  the 
samourai  had  joined  a general  conspiracy  which  it  was 
hoped  would  result  in  the  ruin  of  the  already  crumbling 
Shogunate.  Still,  the  cry  of  ‘ Death  to  the  barbarians  !’  was 
not  so  easily  suppressed,  and  hatred  of  the  foreigner  re- 
mained for  some  time  yet  extremely  fierce  among  the  masses. 
The  governing  classes,  however,  who  had  been  brought  into 
contact  with  Europe,  began  to  see  that  it  was  useless  resisting 

105 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


its  power,  especially  after  Kagoshima,  the  capital  of  Satsuma, 
was  bombarded  in  1863  by  a British  squadron  as  a punishment 
for  the  murder  of  Mr.  Richardson  by  the  Prince’s  escort.  The 
daimios  and  their  councils  no  longer  closed  their  eyes  to  the 
existing  condition  of  affairs,  and  recognising  the  uselessness 
of  resisting  Powers  which  were  armed  with  such  formidable 
engines  of  war,  they  changed  their  policy  as  by  magic, 
loaded  the  foreigners  with  honours,  opened  their  ports  to 
them,  and  even  made  preparations  to  place  the  Japanese  army 
under  the  same  regime  as  that  of  civilized  nations.  This 
conduct  was  not  wholly  disinterested,  for  they  were  shrewd 
enough  to  perceive  the  commercial  advantages  which  might 
ultimately  accrue  to  them  as  a reward  for  their  liberality.  The 
Court  followed  their  example,  and  two  years  after  having 
issued  an  order  to  ‘sweep  the  strangers  from  the  soil  of  Japan  ’ 
as  if  they  were  so  much  dust,  the  Emperor  ratified  the  treaties 
of  1865  at  the  demand  of  the  Shogun,  who  had  come  to  Kioto 
with  70,000  men  to  suppress  the  open  revolt  of  the  Prince  of 
Choshiu. 

This  struggle  between  the  Tokugawa  and  a subordinate 
vassal  was  their  last  and  supreme  effort  to  regain  power.  Un- 
fortunately for  them,  they  were  crushed  in  the  attempt,  and 
their  military  prestige  was  for  ever  destroyed.  The  Regent 
Hitotsubashi,  who  succeeded  the  young  Shogun,  who  died  on 
September  19,  entertained  no  illusions  as  to  the  gravity  of  his 
position.  He  was  by  this  time  firmly  convinced  that  it  was 
absolutely  necessary  radically  to  modify  the  constitution  of  the 
country,  and  feeling  certain  that  it  would  be  useless  any  longer 
to  resist  so  powerful  and  popular  a wave  of  progress,  he  deter- 
mined to  associate  himself  with  the  new  ideas,  in  the  hope 
thereby  of  preserving  some  measure  of  his  family’s  former 
influence.  He  therefore  entreated  the  Emperor  to  summon  a 
council  of  the  principal  daimios,  who  accordingly  assembled  at 
Kioto  in  1868,  with  the  result  that  they  one  and  all  advised  the 
Emperor  to  allow  the  centralization  of  the  Government  to  take 
place  at  once,  as  being  absolutely  necessary  to  the  welfare  of 
the  country.  The  Prince  of  Tosa,  one  of  the  chiefs  of  the 
south,  addressed  a letter  to  the  Shogun,  in  which  he  informed 
him  of  the  results  of  the  meeting,  and  that  they  had  acknow- 
ledged the  supremacy  of  the  Emperor.  Hitotsubashi,  seeing 
that  resistance  was  of  no  further  avail,  sent  in  his  resignation, 
which  was  accepted,  with  the  condition,  however,  that  he  should 

106 


JAPAN 


continue  to  direct  public  affairs  until  after  the  general  assembly 
of  all  the  daimios.  The  southern  clans,  fearing  that  the  Toku- 
gawa  might  still  be  able  to  recover  their  power,  made  a bold 
move,  and  attempted  to  seize  the  person  of  the  Mikado.  On 
January  3,  1868,  the  Imperial  seal  was  stolen,  and  a decree 
issued  handing  over  the  guardianship  of  the  palace  to  the 
samourai  oi  Satsuma,  Hizen  and  Tosa.  On  the  following  day 
the  Shogunate  was  formally  abolished.  Hitotsubashi  retired  to 
Osaka  with  his  army,  where,  trembling  lest  he  might  fall  into 
some  trap  skilfully  prepared  by  his  enemies,  and  refusing  to 
listen  to  any  overtures,  even  the  offer  of  a high  position  in  the 
new  Government,  he  marched  with  his  men  on  Kioto  ; but  the 
unfortunate  Shogun  was  now  treated  as  a mere  rebel,  and  when 
he  beheld  the  troops  of  the  hostile  clans  carrying  the  em- 
broidered standard  of  the  Mikado,  he  realized  that  he  was 
betrayed  by  his  own  people,  and  fled  by  sea  to  Yedo,  where  he 
surrendered  unconditionally  to  Prince  Arisugawa,  commander 
of  the  ‘Army  of  Punishment.’  The  princes  of  his  family  were 
the  first  to  rally  round  the  Emperor ; others  of  his  partisans 
struggled  for  a brief  time  with  an  adverse  fate,  but  were  finally 
overcome,  and  thus  a revolution  which  began  with  the  cry  of 
‘ Down  with  the  foreigners  !’  and  was  provoked  by  the  daimios 
and  the  samourai,  the  representatives  of  feudalism,  against  the 
authority  of  the  Shogun,  ended  in  the  destruction  of  feudalism, 
and  in  the  definite  introduction  into  Japan  of  Western  civiliza- 
tion. 

Soon  afterwards,  when  the  Imperial  Court  began  to  better 
understand  foreign  manners  and  customs,  the  kuges,  the  more 
intelligent  among  them,  from  being  antagonistic  became  their 
staunchest  friends  and  supporters.  Presently  the  mass  of  the 
people,  following  the  lead  of  their  superiors,  enthusiastically 
accepted  the  new  idea  that  Japan  could  no  longer  live  isolated. 
Their  rulers  had  the  distinct  merit  of  understanding  that  in 
order  to  become  the  equal  of  the  Western  nations,  if  only  from 
the  simple  point  of  view  of  material  progress,  it  would  not  suffice 
for  Japan  to  borrow  their  cannons  and  their  guns,  or  even  their 
military  training,  an  experiment  which  had  signally  failed 
with  other  Oriental  Powers  ; but  that  if  Western  civilization 
was  to  be  of  the  least  good  to  Japan,  it  was  absolutely  necessary 
to  accept  it  in  all  its  branches,  civil,  industrial  and  commercial, 
as  well  as  military.  The  promoters  of  the  movement,  the 
ministers  and  agents  of  the  great  lords,  had  no  more  interest  in 

107 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


maintaining  feudalism  than  had,  after  the  Revolution,  the 
inferior  clergy  and  squires  in  the  Government  of  France  before 
1789.  The  first  step  in  the  suppression  of  feudalism  was  the 
abolition  of  the  privileges  of  the  samourai,  who  might,  had 
they  been  allowed  to  retain  them,  have  become  troublesome. 

In  1876  the  carrying  of  the  two  swords,  their  erstwhile  dis- 
tinguishing insignia,  was  prohibited.  The  stipends  which  they 
had  previously  received  from  their  lords,  and  of  which  the  State 
had  possessed  itself,  were  capitalized,  and  the  territorial  revenues 
of  the  daimios,  which  were  at  first  compensated  by  annual 
pensions,  were  transformed  in  the  same  manner.  These 
changes,  which  were  undoubtedly  beneficial  to  the  bulk  of  the 
population,  nevertheless  brought  about  a great  deal  of  misery, 
by  throwing  a number  of  people  who  had  hitherto  enjoyed  all 
the  privileges  of  fortune  into  humble  circumstances.  The 
peasantry  benefited  most  by  the  new  form  of  Government,  and 
became,  without  having  to  pay  anything,  in  a very  short 
time  owners  of  the  land  which  they  had  hitherto  only  held 
as  tenants,  and,  moreover,  no  longer  obliged  to  pay  a tribute 
to  their  feudal  lords,  but  only  a small  tax  to  the  Central  Govern- 
ment. Needless  to  say,  there  was  considerable  resistance  on 
the  part  of  the  two  millions  of  people  whom  these  new  laws 
deprived  of  privileges  which  they  had  enjoyed  for  centuries, 
but  these  were  easily  and  speedily  suppressed.  From  1869, 
in  order  further  to  mark  the  rupture  between  the  old  and  the 
new  order  of  things,  the  residence  of  the  Emperor  was  trans- 
ferred from  Kioto  to  Yedo,  now  known  as  Tokio.  In  1872 
the  first  Japanese  railway  was  opened  between  the  new  capital 
and  Yokohama.  The  old-fashioned  samourai  were  at  first 
dreadfully  scandalized  when  they  saw  the  Emperor,  against 
all  precedent,  driving  about  among  the  lower  classes  in  an  open 
carriage.  But  the  invading  wave  was  too  strong  for  resistance, 
and  presently  a number  of  samourai  of  their  own  accord, 
especially  in  the  capital,  gave  up  the  custom  of  wearing  the 
two  swords.  Yet  another  flicker  of  the  old  spirit,  however, 
reappeared  in  1877,  when  the  clan  of  Satsuma  rose  and 
endeavoured  to  oppose  the  introduction  of  so  many  inno- 
vations. This  rebellion  was  suppressed  by  Marshal  Saigo,  who 
lost  his  life  in  the  affair,  leaving,  however,  behind  him  a name 
still  universally  venerated  in  Japan.  In  1889  Viscount  Mori, 
a Japanese  statesman  of  very  advanced  opinions,  was  stabbed 
by  a fanatic  on  the  day  of  the  proclamation  of  the  new  Consti- 

108 


JAPAN 


tution.  At  present  no  one  in  Japan,  be  he  statesman  or  simple 
citizen,  unless,  indeed,  he  chance  to  be  some  fanatic  or  other 
under  the  influence  of  the  Buddhist  priests  in  some  out-of-the- 
way  district,  dreams  of  disturbing  the  pleasant  relations  which 
exist  between  the  native  population  and  foreigners.  After  the 
repression  of  the  rebellion  in  Satsuma  the  new  Government 
was  definitively  consolidated,  and  the  country  fully  launched 
on  the  road  to  complete  Europeanization.  In  1889  the  Par- 
liamentary system  was  introduced,  and  we  shall  presently  see 
with  what  success.  It  is  therefore  not  saying  too  much  to 
assert,  before  we  proceed  further,  that  the  wonderful  revolution 
which  has  taken  place  in  our  day  in  Japan  is  not  ephemeral, 
and  that  it  has  now  gone  too  far  to  be  in  any  danger  of  reaction. 
It  is,  moreover,  quite  in  accord  with  the  antecedents  and  the 
intellectual  spirit  of  this  remarkable  people,  and  therefore 
likely  not  only  to  become  permanent,  but  even  progressive. 


CHAPTER  III 

MODERN  JAPAN 

Japan  the  country  of  contrasts — The  port  and  town  of  Nagasaki — The 
navigation  of  the  Inland  Sea — ^Junks  and  steam-boats — Yokohama — 
Its  population  and  commerce — Tokio — The  telephones  and  electric 
lights — The  houses  and  the  streets — The  people  and  their  costumes — 
Means  of  transport  at  Tokio — Jinrikishas  and  tramways. 

The  moment  the  traveller  enters  the  harbour  of  Nagasaki  he 
finds  himself  surrounded  by  the  most  extraordinary  contrasts. 
In  the  first  place,  the  scenery  is  quite  charming  : the  mountains 
are  a delightful  green  and  are  thickly  draped  with  foliage,  from 
which  peep  out  a number  of  pretty  little  wooden  houses,  whose 
windows  are  replaced  by  sliding  paper-panels.  The  sea  is 
dotted  with  rocky  islands  covered  with  those  picturesque 
Japanese  fir-trees  whose  outline  is  as  varied  as  it  is  graceful. 
Here  and  there  rise  from  the  water  curious  little  fishing- 
sheds,  the  delight  of  the  amateur  photographer,  which  add 
considerably  to  a landscape  which  looks  for  all  the  world  like 
an  animated  picture  off  a Japanese  screen.  One  can  scarcely 
believe  that  it  is  all  real,  and  certainly  not  that  it  was  at  one 
time  the  scene  of  a terrible  tragedy : yet  such  it  was,  for  from 
one  of  the  neighbouring  islands  in  1638 — yclept  Pappenberg 
— several  hundred  Christians  were  cast  into  the  sea.  Pre- 
sently we  see  rising  in  the  background  a tall  chimney  with  its 
streaming  cloud  of  smoke,  and  the  noise  of  machinery  in 
motion  grating  upon  our  ears  reminds  us  somew’hat  unplea- 
santly that  modern  civilization  has  at  length  penetrated  into 
Japan,  and  the  better  to  emphasize  this  fact,  our  steamer  is 
presently  surrounded  by  a fleet  of  ugly  coal-barges,  and  a 
sudden  turn  brings  us  face  to  face  with  the  ships  and  flags  of 
all  nations — British,  French,  German,  Russian,  and  American. 

1 10 


JAPAN 

On  the  other  side  of  the  bay,  in  the  docks  recently  con- 
structed by  the  Mitsubishi  Company,  workmen  are  busy  build- 
ing a 5,ooo-ton  vessel.  Not  far  distant,  on  the  southern  slope 
of  the  hill  overlooking  the  town,  is  the  European  quarter, 
situated  in  the  midst  of  delightful  gardens.  The  elegant 
steeple  of  the  Catholic  church  rises  sharply  from  among  the 
pine-trees,  and  contrasts  favourably  with  the  massive  and  very 
ugly  building — an  eyesore  on  the  pretty  scene — that  disagreeably 
emphasizes  the  very  bad  taste  of  the  American  missionaries, 
as  also  the  absolute  tolerance  which  the  Government  of  the 
Mikado  accords  to  all  denominations  in  a country  where,  not 
so  very  long  ago,  so  great  was  its  exclusiveness  that  even  the 
shipwrecked  were  put  to  a cruel  death.  As  I gazed  upon 
this  charming  scene,  I could  not  forbear  picturing  to  myself 
how  it  must  have  looked  fifty  years  ago  when  a solitary  Dutch 
vessel  landed  its  tiny  cargo  for  the  benefit  of  a few  foreign 
merchants  imprisoned  in  the  artificial  island  of  Deshima,  the 
only  spot  where  they  were  allowed  to  live,  and  even  then  sub- 
jected to  many  vexatious  humiliations. 

In  forty-five  years  Nagasaki  has  become  the  chief  coaling 
port  on  the  Pacific,  and  as  safe  for  Europeans — perhaps  safer — 
than  many  a seaport  in  Europe  itself.  Steamers  do  not 
remain  long  at  Nagasaki,  where  they  only  touch  to  coal,  but 
passengers  have  time  to  land  for  a few  hours  and  visit  the 
town.  Happily,  the  inhabitants  have  retained  their  national 
costumes,  but  the  men  have  unfortunately  adopted  our  very 
ugly  headgear,  and  flourish  in  every  variety  of  bowler  and 
yachting  hat.  In  the  shops  one  soon  perceives  the  march  of 
civilization,  for  they  are  full  of  articles  imported  from  all  parts 
of  the  world,  as  well  as  others  imitated  from  European  models, 
improved  upon,  in  the  artistic  sense,  by  the  natives.  You  can 
buy  books  by  all  the  leading  authors  almost  as  cheaply  as 
in  Paris  or  London,  as  well  as  oil-lamps,  gas-stoves,  photo- 
graphs representing  recent  Japanese  battles  with  the  Chinese, 
looking-glasses  (which  were  absolutely  unknown  in  Japan  until 
quite  recently),  and  little  terrestrial  globes,  the  sight  of  which 
latter  reminded  me  of  an  anecdote  related  by  a missionary 
when  I was  in  China.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Chino- 
Japanese  War,  the  Viceroy  of  a certain  province  asked  the 
Reverend  Father  to  show  him  where  Japan  was  located,  and 
he  had  the  pleasure  of  pointing  out  to  His  Excellency,  for  the 
first  time  in  his  life,  the  exact  place  whence  came  the  warriors 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


with  whom  his  Government  was  then  at  war.  The  Japanese 
are  very  proud  of  their  victory  over  their  colossal  neighbour, 
and  have  placed  some  of  the  cannon  which  they  took  from 
her  in  the  principal  Shinto  temples  in  the  city. 

Twelve  hours  after  leaving  Nagasaki  you  pass  into  the  great 
Inland  Sea,  or  heart  of  Japan,  to  effect  an  entrance  into  which 
in  1863  required  the  combined  efforts  of  the  fleets  of  England, 
France,  Holland,  and  the  United  States.  Now  every  great 
steamer  that  trades  in  the  Pacific  is  free  to  weigh  anchor  in 
this  glorious  harbour,  which,  however,  is  never  open  at  night 
on  account  of  the  many  dangers  to  navigation  in  the  Strait  of 
Shimonoseki,  w’hich,  by  the  way,  is  only  a mile  wide.  As  we 
passed  through  it,  I perceived  quite  close  to  the  southern  shore 
no  less  than  six  immense  steamers,  anchored  off  the  port  of 
Moji — rapidly  becoming  a rival  to  Nagasaki — up  to  which  the 
trains  bring  coal  from  the  mines  situated  some  miles  inland. 
On  the  summit  of  the  long  range  of  hills  a number  of  huge 
cannon  stationed  at  intervals  testify  that  the  coasts  of  Japan 
are  by  no  means  unguarded. 

Everything  has  been  done  by  the  Japanese  Government  to 
facilitate  navigation  in  this  rather  dangerous  Inland  Sea,  which 
was  so  hermetically  shut  to  foreigners  a half-century  ago.  In 
1895  there  were  over  149  light-houses,  built  either  by  the 
State  or  the  local  authorities,  admirably  placed  at  intervals 
along  the  coast  of  Japan,  the  majority,  of  course,  being  erected 
along  the  shores  of  the  Inland  Sea,  which,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered, contains  not  less  than  5,000  islands.  These  lighthouses 
are  all  the  more  necessary  because,  although  the  scenery  of  this 
magnificent  expanse  of  water  is  very  beautiful,  the  currents  are 
exceedingly  strong  and  dangerous,  and  the  shoals,  moreover, 
very  numerous.  An  amazing  number  of  little  Japanese 
steamers  of  from  80  to  200  tons,  and  even  less,  constantly 
carry  passengers  to  and  fro  between  the  various  ports  and 
towns  on  these  innumerable  islands.  Mingling  among  these 
are  still  to  be  seen  a few  old  Japanese  junks,  which,  however 
picturesque,  are  not  of  much  use  in  these  go-ahead  days, 
and  are  rapidly  disappearing.  Their  shape  is  now  only  re- 
tained by  a few  fisher-boats.  As  a matter  of  fact,  it  is  no 
longer  legal  to  build  vessels  after  the  old  Japanese  model, 
excepting  on  a small  scale,  as  in  fishing  or  pleasure  boats. 
Such  a decree  as  this  would,  in  any  other  country,  have  caused 
some  unruly  expression  of  public  opinion  ; but  in  Japan  it  was 

113 


JAPAN 


otherwise,  and  the  people  very  reasonably  accepted  a change 
for  the  better  in  the  time-honoured  form  of  their  sea-craft. 
After  twenty-four  hours,  of  which  one  or  two  were  passed  at 
Kobe,  we  left  the  Inland  Sea  behind,  and  almost  immediately 
afterwards  beheld  for  the  first  time  the  peak  of  the  celebrated 
Fusi-yama  volcano,  rendered  so  famous  by  Japanese  en- 
gravers. Twenty-eight  hours  after  leaving  Kobe  we  entered 
the  harbour  of  Yokohama,  which  is  within  fifty  minutes’  rail 
of  Tokio,  the  capital. 

Yokohama  was,  before  the  enfranchising  of  the  ports,  a 
miserable  little  fishing  village  containing  about  a hundred 
houses.  It  was  opened  to  foreign  commerce  in  1858  in  the 
place  of  Shimoda,  which  was  thought  to  be  badly  situated.  It 
is  a town  of  170,000  inhabitants,  having  sprung  up  after  the 
mushroom  fashion  hitherto  deemed  peculiar  to  America,  and  is 
the  third  largest  port  in  the  Far  East,  being  alone  surpassed 
by  Hong-Kong  and  Shanghai ; but  its  streets  appear  much 
less  animated  than  those  of  the  last-named  ports.  The  Bund, 
the  principal  thoroughfare  by  the  sea,  always  seems  rather 
deserted.  On  the  other  hand,  on  the  hill  above,  to  the  south 
of  the  concession,  is  the  European  quarter,  which  is  full  of 
delightful  houses,  surrounded  by  lovely  gardens.  There  are 
about  1,800  foreigners  of  various  nationalities,  exclusive  of 
Chinese,  settled  here,  a good  half  being  English.  The  port  is 
very  spacious  and  commodious,  and  the  biggest  ships  ever 
built  can  anchor  quite  close  up  to  the  quay.  The  total  value 
of  the  exports  in  1896  was  ;^6, 169,600,  the  imports  ;^7, 280,400, 
making  a total  of  ;^i3,45o,ooo,  or  about  half  the  foreign  com- 
merce of  Japan,  which,  during  the  same  year,  reached  the 
very  important  figure  of  ;^28,5oo,ooo.*  But  this  brand  new 
town  is  not  particularly  interesting,  and  the  traveller  will  do 
well  to  hurry  on  to  Tokio. 

The  capital  of  Japan  is  the  largest  town  in  Asia,  and  the 
seventh  in  the  world.  On  December  31,  1895,  it  was  reputed  to 
contain  1,268,930  souls,  and  must  by  this  time,  owing  to  the 
rapid  increase  of  its  population,  have  attained  1,400,000.  It  is 
spread  over  an  enormous  space,  much  larger  than  that  occupied 
by  Paris.  The  reason  why  it  covers  such  an  amazing  extent  is 
that  everybody  lives  in  his  own  house,  which  is  never  more  than 
one  story  high,  and  then,  again,  nearly  every  house  has  its  little 


In  1899  (to  December  25)  423,646,605  yen  or  ;^42, 364,660. — H.  N. 

113  I 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


garden.  Under  these  conditions,  it  is,  therefore,  not  surprising 
that  such  an  enormous  population  requires  unlimited  space 
in  which  to  accommodate  itself.  Moreover,  Tokio  contains 
a great  many  open  spaces,  and,  odd  to  relate,  most  of  these 
are  to  be  found  in  the  centre  of  the  town  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  Imperial  Palace.  These  ‘ building  sites,’ 
if  one  might  so  call  them,  were  formerly  occupied  by  the  palaces 
of  the  great  daimios,  the  majority  of  which  were  surrounded 
by  bastions,  supported  on  a cyclopean  stone  wall  rising  from 
a deep  moat.  When  the  daimios  first  received  permission  to 
leave  Tokio,  a few  years  before  the  downfall  of  the  old 
Government,  they  retired  to  their  castles  in  the  provinces,  and, 
at  the  abolition  of  the  feudal  system  in  1872,  their  lands 
became,  as  we  have  seen,  the  property  of  the  State.  On  the 
site  of  several  of  them  immense  public  buildings  have  been 
erected  after  the  European  fashion,  among  which  are  the 
palaces  of  the  various  Ministries,  and  also  the  Parliament 
House ; but  many  other  wide,  open  spaces  are  still  waiting  to 
be  utilized,  and,  being  weed-grown  and  disorderly,  produce  a 
distinctly  dreary  effect.  The  old  ramparts,  planted  with  pine- 
trees,  which  surrounded  most  of  them,  are  still  standing,  and 
one,  embracing  the  immense  park  of  the  Imperial  Palace,  is 
used  as  a public  promenade.  As  you  walk  along  it,  and  look 
towards  the  palace  itself,  it  is  difficult  to  believe  that  you  are 
in  Japan,  everything  is  so  very  European,  and  on  the  other 
side  the  waste  land  contains  a perfect  forest  of  telegraph  and 
telephone  poles,  which  affirms,  and  very  forcibly,  too,  that  our 
civilization  is  distinctly  the  reverse  of  picturesque. 

Telephones,  telegraph,  electric  light,  gas,  petroleum  lamps, 
etc.,  are  now  as  plentifully  used  in  Tokio  as  they  are  in  any 
English  or  American  town.  It  is  most  amusing  to  notice  as 
you  pass  along  the  streets,  when  the  paper  screens  which  form 
the  fagade  of  most  of  the  houses  are  removed,  the  artisans 
seated  at  their  tatamis,  working  by  the  light  of  an  Edison  lamp. 
Wffien  they  cannot  afford  electricity  or  gas,  the  Japanese  use 
petroleum  exclusively,  but  not  without  some  considerable 
risk  to  the  safety  of  a city  entirely  built  of  wood.  Since  a 
Japanese  house  contains  next  door  to  nothing  in  the  way  of 
furniture,  and  that  even  in  the  houses  of  the  rich  all  valuable 
objects  of  art  are  usually  kept  in  an  iron  safe,  and  only  exposed 
on  state  occasions,  a fire  does  not  matter  so  much  as  it  would 
in  a London  mansion  or  a Chicago  ‘sky-scraper.’  A few 

1T4 


JAPAN 


cushions,  coverlets,  and  household  utensils,  which  are  to  be 
found  in  every  house,  are  soon  put  outside  the  doors,  so  that 
the  inhabitants  have  very  little  to  fear,  for  their  house  is  only 
one  story  high,  and  the  whole  fagade  consists  of  paper  screens, 
which  slide  into  one  another  when  required.  The  only  people 
who  really  have  anything  to  fear  from  fire  are  the  retail 
merchants,  whose  shops,  of  course,  are  well  stocked.  Fires 
are  of  very  constant  occurrence,  and  people  are  not  at  all 
surprised  to  wake  up  in  the  morning  to  hear  that  some  hundred 
houses  have  been  burnt  down  during  the  night. 

The  authorities  at  present  avail  themselves  of  fires  in  order 
to  widen  the  streets  and  improve  their  sanitary  condition. 
They  are  now  as  a rule  much  straighter  and  wider  than  any  to 
be  found  in  most  other  Oriental  cities,  and  even,  for  the  matter 
of  that,  in  the  towns  of  Southern  Europe,  and  although  they 
have  no  side-walks,  they  are  much  cleaner  than  any  you  will 
find  in  China  or  Siberia,  or,  indeed,  in  most  cities  of  the 
United  States.  Possibly  on  account  of  the  immense  size  of 
the  city,  they  are  nothing  like  so  animated  as  the  streets  of 
Peking  or  Tien-tsin,  and  are  much  less  picturesque  than  one 
might  have  been  led  to  expect,  for  the  Japanese,  both  men  and 
women,  after  they  have  reached  their  tenth  or  twelfth  year 
dress  very  plainly  in  neutral  colours,  blue,  gray  and  brown 
prevailing.  The  women,  however,  enliven  the  scene  by  their 
bright-hued  waistbands  and  huge  bows.  As  to  the  children, 
especially  on  holidays,  they  wear  the  most  vivid  colours. 
Sometimes  you  can  trace  upon  their  tiny  persons  an  entire 
landscape,  and  at  others  enormous  bunches  of  flowers  dashed 
upon  a background  of  scarlet  China  crape,  which  decorate 
their  exceedingly  small  figures.  Their  heads  are  generally  close- 
shaven  when  they  are  infants,  but  as  they  grow  older  the 
dignity  of  age  is  marked  by  that  funny  zone  of  stiff  black  hair 
which  adds  so  much  to  the  comical  appearance  of  a Japanese 
doll.  Another  peculiarity  about  these  youngsters  is  that  a 
smaller  one  generally  hangs  on  to  the  back  of  another  so 
tightly  as  to  suggest  a big  barnacle.  It  is  indeed  amusing  to 
watch  a little  lady  of  between  five  and  six  years  of  age  carrying 
her  still  smaller  brother  on  her  back  literally  from  morning  to 
night,  never  appearing  in  the  least  degree  incommoded  by  what 
to  children  of  other  nationalities  would  be  a most  uncomfort- 
able position.  The  little  boy  accommodates  himself  to  all  the 
various  movements  his  sister  may  make.  If  she  tumbles,  he 

IIS  I 2 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


tumbles,  and  if  she  gets  up,  up  gets  he,  and  it  would  really 
appear  as  if  the  younger  child  formed  an  integral  part  of  the 
elder’s  body.  European  children  who  are  brought  up  in  Japan 
fall  into  this  singular  habit  quite  as  naturally  as  the  Japanese, 
who  can  fall  to  sleep  in  a position  which  would,  one  imagine, 
have  kept  awake  one  of  the  famous  Seven  Sleepers  of  Ephesus. 

European  costume  has  undoubtedly  made  some  inroad 
throughout  Japan,  but  fortunately  not  to  the  extent  originally 
anticipated.  Japanese  ladies,  who  first  adopted  European 
fashions  with  enthusiasm,  at  present  have  nearly  returned  to 
the  delightful  way  of  dressing  invented  by  their  ancestresses, 
so  that  during  the  three  months  I spent  in  Japan  I only  once 
saw  a Japanese  lady  dressed  a la  Parisienne.  The  European 
costume  is  now  only  to  be  seen  at  Court  on  state  occasions, 
where,  it  should  be  observed,  the  old  Japanese  Court  dress  was 
not  only  very  ugly  and  extremely  heavy,  but  most  uncomfort- 
able. A few  years  ago  an  order  was  given  that  all  the  officials, 
little  and  great,  should  wear,  when  on  duty,  frock-coats  and 
straight  trousers,  but  this  edict  is  no  longer  in  force.  Never- 
theless, it  has  become  the  fashion  for  Japanese  officials  of  rank 
to  attend  their  offices  in  European  costume,  but  here  again 
there  are  already  exceptions.  English  hats  of  all  sorts  and 
shapes,  Tyrolese,  bowler,  sailor  hats,  and  German  caps,  are 
universally  worn  by  men  in  every  class.  Some  young  gentle- 
men, with  pretensions  to  fashion,  are  adopting  the  tailor-made 
garments  of  Bond  Street  and  the  Rue  de  la  Paix,  and  although 
this  is  regrettable  from  the  aesthetic  point  of  view,  it  must  be 
conceded  that  our  dress  is  much  better  adapted  for  the  exigencies 
of  our  modern  life  than  the  loose,  long-sleeved  garments  of  the 
Japanese. 

The  kago,  or  palanquin,  has  absolutely  disappeared  from 
Tokio,  and  is  now  only  to  be  found  in  the  mountain  districts, 
its  place  having  been  taken  by  the  jinrikisha.  It  is  now  so 
well  known  in  Europe,  thanks  to  Japanese  exhibitions,  that  all 
I need  say  is  that  it  is  a very  small  carriage  supported  by  two 
very  tall  wheels,  and  pulled  along  by  a runner.  The  jinrikisha 
is  not,  as  many  imagine,  of  Japanese  origin,  but  due  to  the 
inventive  genius  of  a foreigner,  who  made  a fortune  out  of  his 
invention.  It  is  now  used  throughout  the  whole  of  the 
Far  East ; but  Japan  remains  the  land  of  its  predilection, 
mainly  on  account  of  the  extraordinary  swiftness  and  skill  of 
the  native  runners,  who  are  unsurpassed  in  this  respect  in  any 

1 16 


JAPAN 


other  part  of  the  East.  There  are  at  the  present  moment 
about  200,000  of  these  quaint  vehicles  in  various  parts  of  the 
Empire,  of  which  about  40,000  are  in  Tokio.  As  a rule  they 
can  only  seat  one  person,  but  a few  are  built  to  convey  two 
passengers,  exclusively  Japanese  ; for  the  jinrikisha  is  not  yet 
built  that  would  accommodate  a couple  of  Europeans,  even 
ladies.  The  lowest  fare  is  2|^d. ; by  the  hour,  5d. ; and  for  the 
half-day,  is.  3d.  These  are  the  prices  exacted  from  Europeans, 
but  the  Japanese  pay  considerably  less. 

Independently  of  the  jinrikisha,  Tokio  possesses  a few  omni- 
buses, and  a line  of  tramways  uniting  the  two  stations  of  Shim- 
bashi,  the  terminus  of  the  Western,  and  Uyeno,  that  of  the 
Northern  Railway.  The  extreme  length  of  this  tramway  is  nine 
miles,  and  the  fare  is  i^d.  all  the  way.  The  tramcars  are  driven 
by  horses,  and  the  number  of  seats  is  not  limited,  people  being 
allowed  to  stand  up  in  the  middle  as  in  the  United  States. 
In  1895  the  company  conveyed  fifteen  million  and  a half 
passengers,  paying  a return  of  thirty-five  per  cent,  on  a capital  of 
about  ;^45,ooo.  An  electric  tramway  is  now  under  considera- 
tion. One  improvement  Tokio  certainly  stands  in  need  of, 
and  that  regards  its  lighting.  Here  and  there  you  may  come 
across  an  electric  lamp  or  so  ; but  the  principal  street  illumina- 
tion invariably  proceeds  from  those  big  Chinese  lanterns, 
lighted  by  petroleum  lamps,  which  hang  outside  the  shops, 
which,  fortunately,  remain  open  until  quite  late ; but  when  the 
shutters  are  up  in  most  of  the  wooden  houses  one  passes  by, 
the  darkness  is  quite  Egyptian,  unless,  indeed,  it  happens  to 
be  a moonlight  night.  Doubtless,  in  the  course  of  a very  little 
time,  Tokio  will  be  as  well  lighted  as  any  other  highly-civilized 
city. 


CHAPTER  IV 


JAPANESE  INDUSTRY 

Japan  the  Great  Britain  of  the  Far  East — Osaka,  the  centre  of  Japanese 
industry — Great  and  small  industries — Increase  of  certain  industries 
hitherto  unknown  in  Japan  : glass  and  match  manufactories,  breweries, 
etc. — Employment  of  children — Scale  of  wages — Length  of  labour 
hours — Cotton-spinning — The  larger  industries — Recruiting  of  work- 
men and  women  from  the  rural  districts — Abuses  denounced  by  the 
press — Increase  of  wages  throughout  Japan. 

Nothing  delights  the  Japanese  more  than  to  hear  their  Empire 
compared  to  Great  Britain,  and  when  we  come  to  think  of 
it  there  is  a certain  analogy  between  the  Archipelago  of  the 
Rising  Sun  in  the  Far  East  and  the  British  Isles  in  the 
West ; but  the  Japanese  hope  that  this  resemblance  will  not 
end  in  a mere  geographical  comparison,  but  extend  to  their 
maritime,  commercial  and  industrial  development.  To  their 
credit,  be  it  said,  they  are  really  working  very  hard  to  attain 
their  ideal.  One  has  only  to  visit  Osaka,  the  Manchester  of 
the  Mikado’s  Empire,  to  realize  the  amazing  progress  made  by 
the  Japanese  in  the  last  quarter  of  the  century.  This  city, 
which  has  a population  of  about  half  a million  souls,  is  situated 
midway  between  Kioto  and  Kobe,  about  thirty  miles  distant, 
which  respectively  contain  340,000  and  150,000  inhabitants. 
About  six  and  a half  miles  further  on  is  yet  another  industrial 
centre,  Sakai,  with  a population  of  50,000.  This  region,  which 
slopes  gradually  to  the  Inland  Sea,  may  be  described  as  the 
heart  of  Japan,  being  its  main  centre  of  commercial,  agri- 
cultural and  industrial  activity,  and  it  is  the  chief  tea-market  of 
the  Empire.  It  was  also  until  1869  near  the  political  centre; 
for  Kioto  was  from  the  end  of  the  eighth  century  the  capital  of 
the  Mikados,  who  removed  their  Court  thither  from  Nara,  where 
they  had  previously  resided  for  several  centuries. 

n8 


JAPAN 


Industries  on  a large  scale  have  only  been  recently  introduced 
into  Japan,  among  the  earliest  being  that  of  cotton-spinning, 
established  in  Osaka  in  1882.  Before  the  arrival  of  the 
Europeans,  and  even  up  to  1880,  nearly  all  the  minor  trade 
of  the  country  was  divided  up  into  a number  of  small  workshops 
scattered  all  over  the  country.  A few  large  silk  manufactories 
existed,  however,  in  the  more  important  towns,  and  at  Kioto 
there  were  some  fairly  important  paper  factories,  and  sake- 
distilleries  (wine  made  from  rice)  ; but  these  were  not  numerous, 
and  only  engaged  a very  few  hands.  The  official  statistics  for 
1894  disclose  the  existence  of  4,732  families  manufacturing 
the  various  ceramic  products  for  which  Japan  is  famous,  em- 
ploying about  23,726  people;  4,407  families,  giving  employ- 
ment to  14,092  artisans,  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  lacquer- 
ware  ; 81,652  matting  and  straw-plaiting  factories;  and  lastly 
600,444  femilies  working  820,585  looms.  From  this  we  see 
that  what  might  be  termed  the  minor  industries  of  the 
country  are  very  numerously  represented.  In  these  small 
and  independent  workshops  are  produced  all  those  numerous 
Japanese  articles  that  enjoy  a European  popularity  which 
they  are  not  likely  to  lose  for  a very  long  time  to  come, 
Japan  having  a monopoly  in  the  production  of  an  infinite 
number  of  toys,  articles  of  furniture,  paper  fans,  umbrellas, 
boxes,  screens,  and  knick-knacks  of  every  description  ; and  it  is 
fortunate  it  is  so,  on  account  of  the  density  of  the  rural 
population,  and  the  exceeding  smallness  of  the  farms,  which 
are  easily  cultivated,  leaving  their  proprietors  a great  deal  of 
leisure  on  their  hands,  which  they  wisely  employ  in  making 
those  countless  pretty  things  that  in  Europe  go  by  the  name  of 
‘ Japanese  fancy  goods.’  These  small  workshops  now  carry  on 
nearly  all  the  art  industries  of  the  country,  but  no  Japanese  city 
is  now  without  its  tall  chimneys,  rising  quite  as  conspicuously 
and  unpicturesquely  in  their  suburbs  as  they  do  in  Europe. 

Northward  of  the  Cyclopean  stone  ramparts  of  the  old  castle 
of  Osaka  stands  the  enormous  Mint,  one  of  the  finest  establish- 
ments of  the  sort  in  the  world,  to  the  east  of  which  is  the 
Arsenal,  where  the  Japanese  turn  out  all  the  cannon  and 
guns  necessary  for  the  use  of  their  army.  At  night  the 
horizon  is  crimson  with  the  ruddy  glow  of  the  cotton-mills 
and  other  numerous  factories.  Most  of  these  industries  have 
only  been  lately  introduced  into  the  country,  and  the  fathers 
of  many  of  those  who  are  engaged  in  them  had  no  idea  even 

119 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 

of  their  existence.  The  Japanese,  for  instance,  until  quite 
recently,  had  no  conception  of  the  art  of  glass-blowing.  To  day 
there  are  several  very  important  glass  factories  doing  a first- 
class  trade  at  Osaka,  glass  being  now  much  needed  on  account 
of  the  prevailing  use  of  petroleum  lamps,  and  many  people  are 
beginning  to  use  glass  in  place  of  the  paper  screens  which  have 
hitherto  served  the  Japanese  as  windows.  Breweries  have 
been  established  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  and  the 
principal  at  Osaka  produces  admirable  beer,  largely  exported, 
even  as  far  as  Vladivostok  and  Singapore.  Brushes  of  every 
description,  too,  are  now  manufactured  in  Japan,  and  e.x- 
ported  in  great  quantities  to  the  United  States.  I had  the 
pleasure  of  inspecting  one  of  these  brush  manufactories  at 
Osaka,  which  employed  300  men,  women  and  children  on  the 
premises,  and  900  others  in  its  various  branches  in  the  suburbs. 
I experienced  some  little  difficulty  at  first  in  gaining  admittance 
on  account  of  my  nationality,  and  I had  even  to  take  an  oath 
that  I would  not  divulge  any  of  the  secrets  of  the  trade.  This 
precaution  was  due  to  some  fear  that  I might  possibly  intro- 
duce their  economical  system  into  France,  and  thereby  do 
them  considerable  mischief  in  the  way  of  competition.  A 
curious  fact  connected  with  this  particular  trade  of  brush- 
making is,  that  the  necessary  pigs’  bristles  and  bone  have  to 
be  imported,  for  the  excellent  reason  that  St.  Anthony’s  pet 
animal  is  practically  non-existent  in  any  part  of  the  Empire,  so 
that  the  Japanese  confine  themselves  to  carving  the  handles  for 
the  infinite  number  of  brushes  which  they  manufacture,  and 
in  putting  the  bristles  into  the  variety  of  objects  that  require 
them.  Osaka  likewise  contains  a number  of  iron-foundries 
and  ship  yards,  in  which  nearly  all  the  small  steamers  which 
ply  between  the  islands  are  constructed.  Unfortunately  the 
harbour  of  Osaka  is  a very  bad  one,  and,  indeed,  might  almost 
be  described  as  non-existent,  the  entrance  to  the  river  being 
very  sandy,  and  the  exit  seaward  hopelessly  narrow  and  ex- 
posed to  east  winds.  For  this  reason  the  majority  of  the  goods 
manufactured  at  Osaka  are  exported  via  Kobe,  where  nearly 
all  the  great  English  and  American  steamers  touch,  and  which 
is  an  admirable  port.  The  formation  of  a large  harbour  at 
Osaka  was  begun  in  1899,  at  a cost  of  something  like 
^2,000,000,  assured  by  a loan  of  700,000,  issued  by  the 
town,  in  addition  to  a considerable  subvention  from  the  State. 
A new  industry  has  recently  been  introduced  at  Osaka,  that  of 

120 


JAPAN 


jute  carpet-making,  which  is  likely  to  become  very  important, 
an  enormous  number  of  very  cheap  and  very  pretty  carpets 
having  already  been  exported  to  the  United  States  and  still 
more  recently  to  England,  where,  on  account  of  their  excellent 
patterns,  durability  and  extreme  cheapness,  they  have  suddenly 
become  extremely  popular.  The  present  Exhibition  at  Paris 
will  no  doubt  introduce  them  into  France. 

The  Japanese  copper  and  tin  industries  have  only  recently 
been  created,  and  at  present  do  not  employ  more  than  eighty 
hands.  The  silk  industries  are  entirely  concentrated  at  Kioto. 
Mats  and  other  straw  goods,  which  form  a very  important  item 
of  Japanese  export,  are  exclusively  made  in  and  about  the  same 
city.  Undoubtedly  the  two  most  important  of  the  modern 
Japanese  industries  are  cotton-spinning  and  match-making. 
In  1889,  10,165,000  gross  of  matches,  costing  184,000,  were 
produced.  In  1894,  the  figures  stood  at  18,721,000  gross, 
valued  at  ;^4o6,8oo,  since  when  this  industry  has  gone  on 
increasing  by  leaps  and  bounds.  Matches,  as  may  well  be 
imagined,  are  very  cheap  throughout  the  country,  and  you  can 
buy  two  boxes  containing  each  about  sixty  for  five  rin,  or  a 
half-sen,  i.e.,  half  a farthing. 

Nothing  can  be  more  interesting  than  a visit  to  one  of  these 
great  match  factories,  which  exclusively  employ  women  and 
children,  the  latter  being  sometimes  under  six  years  of  age. 
Wages,  when  compared  with  those  of  Europe,  are  very  trifling, 
the  highest  average  being  15  sen,  or  about  3fd.,  per  diem. 
Some  of  the  girls  get  a little  more  for  pasting  on  the  labels, 
which  requires  considerable  skill,  and  the  women  who  put 
the  matches  in  the  boxes  are  paid  4|d.  Very  clever  work- 
women, who  by  the  sheer  delicacy  of  their  touch  are  able  to 
tell  to  a match,  without  the  trouble  of  counting  them,  how 
many  go  to  a box,  are  paid  7d.  Some  objection  has  been 
made  to  the  employment  of  so  many  infants,  but  their  mothers 
do  not  seem  to  object,  for  in  the  first  place  the  children 
add  a farthing  or  so  to  the  general  fund,  and  in  the  second 
they  are  able  to  keep  them  about  them,  which  no  doubt  saves 
them  much  anxiety.  Very  few  men  are  engaged  in  these 
match  manufactories.  The  match-boxes  are  nearly  all  made 
by  the  work-people  at  home  in  their  off-hours,  and  also  in 
certain  workshops  set  apart  for  their  manufacture.  Japanese 
matches  are  exported  in  great  quantities  to  Hong  Kong,  China 
and  India. 


lai 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


The  cotton  looms  are  located  in  stone  buildings  erected  on 
Manchester  models,  and  employ  many  thousands  of  hands. 
The  following  Custom-house  statistics  will  give  an  excellent 
idea  of  the  progress  of  this  industry  : 


Spun  Cotton. 

Importation  of  Raw 

Exportation  from 

imporluiiv/.i 

Cotton  into  Japan. 

Japan. 

Japan. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

1894 

64,071 

2,067 

9.350 

1895  

84,739 

2,362 

8,661 

1896 

99, 108 

7,677 

11,810 

1897  (10  months) 

117,710 

20,274 

7.185 

From  the  above  it  will  be  remarked  that  Japan,  in  a rela- 
tively very  short  time,  from  being  almost  exclusively  an  importer 
of  cotton  goods,  now  exports  them  to  foreign  markets,  and 
with  good  results.  The  Custom-house  declared  in  1898 
109,600  worth  of  cotton,  or  20,269  tons  of  exports,  and 
_;,^734,4oo,  or  7,185  tons  of  imports.  The  statistics  of  the 
Japanese  Cotton  Spinners’  Union  record  the  following  figures: 


Mills. 

No,  of  Looms. 

Workmen. 

Work- 

women. 

Production  of 
Spun  Cotton. 

31  Dec.,  1890 

30 

227,895 

4,089 

10.330 

Tons. 

18,798 

„ 1895 

47 

580,945 

9,650 

3', '40 

68,106 

„ 1897 

61 

839.387 

13-447 

43.367 

97.435 

31  Oct.,  1898 

61 

1,233,661 

13.447 

43.367 

97,829 

Nearly  half  of  this  cotton  is  manufactured  at  Osaka,  the 
rest  at  Kobe,  and  at  Okyama,  on  the  Inland  Sea,  to  the  west, 
and  at  Yokkaichi,  Nagoya  and  Tokio,  to  the  east.  The  con- 
clusion of  the  late  Chinese  War  gave  a great  impulse  to  the 
cotton  industries  in  Japan,  and  necessitated  the  construction 
of  new  and  much  larger  establishments,  and  the  enlarge- 
ment of  those  already  in  existence,  so  that  it  is  calculated  that 
before  long  over  a million  and  a half  looms  will  be  in  activity 
in  various  parts  of  the  country.  These  very  important  indus- 
tries, it  must  be  remembered,  are  not  subsidized  by  foreign 
capital,  or  under  the  direction  of  foreigners ; they  are  purely 

122 


JAPAN 


and  absolutely  Japanese ; up  to  the  present,  however,  nearly 
all  the  plant  has  been  imported  from  England  and  America. 

Until  1897  employers  of  labour  had  a good  deal  of  trouble 
in  obtaining  workmen.  The  townspeople,  being  engaged  in  a 
great  many  small  industries  of  their  own,  were  not  willing  to 
abandon  them  for  work  which  was  not  likely  to  prove  as  re- 
munerative as  their  own  ; in  consequence  of  this  the  country 
districts  had  to  be  ransacked  for  hands,  and  nearly  all  the  girls 
employed  in  the  factories  of  Osaka  are  the  daughters  of  small 
farmers.  They  are  lodged  and  boarded  by  the  various  com- 
panies in  buildings  erected  expressly  for  the  purpose,  a per- 
centage being  deducted  from  their  wages  for  their  keep.  Cer- 
tain abuses  having  arisen  in  their  management,  a leading 
local  newspaper,  published  in  English,  but  really  owned  and 
edited  by  Japanese,  in  1897  called  attention  to  the  same  in 
a series  of  articles,  violently  attacking  the  working  organization 
of  the  Osaka  cotton-mills.  The  lodgings  of  the  workwomen 
were,  it  was  stated,  exceedingly  unhealthy ; and  as  to  the 
morals  of  the  women  employed,  the  less  said  about  them  the 
better.  Then,  again,  the  agents  who  engaged  these  young 
women  were  accused  of  doing  so  under  false  promises,  and  it 
was  said  they  even  went  so  far  as  to  intercept  their  correspond- 
ence with  their  homes.  The  editor  furthermore  condemned 
in  the  severest  terms  the  employment  of  extremely  young 
children. 

These  articles  attracted  a great  deal  of  attention,  and  con- 
tained doubtless  a certain  amount  of  truth,  not  unmingled, 
however,  with  considerable  exaggeration.  The  Japanese 
employers  of  labour  are,  it  should  be  remarked,  after  all  in  very 
much  the  same  position  in  which  our  own  were  some  fifty  or 
sixty  years  ago.  As  to  the  moral  tone  of  the  workgirls,  it  is 
doubtless  neither  better  nor  worse  than  it  is  in  the  great  manu- 
facturing centres  of  Europe  and  America.  At  Moscow  a 
manufacturer  informed  me  that  the  morals  of  his  workgirls 
were  very  bad,  and  at  Shanghai  another  gentleman  related  to 
me  things  on  the  same  subject  best  left  unpublished.  The 
working  hours  are  not  longer  in  Japan  than  they  were  in  Europe 
thirty  or  forty  years  ago.  They  never  exceed  tw’elve  hours  a 
day,  from  which  half  an  hour  must  be  deducted  for  the  mid- 
day meal.  Nevertheless,  it  is  excessive,  especially  when  we 
remember  that  the  week’s  work  is  divided  into  two  parts,  one 
half  the  hands  working  all  night  and  the  other  all  day,  so  that 

123 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


the  looms  are  never  at  rest  Then  they  have  only  two  off- 
days  in  the  month,  on  the  first  and  the  fifteenth;  and  there  are 
only  four  special  holidays  in  the  year,  the  three  first  days  in 
the  New  Year,  and  the  Emperor’s  birthday.  Even  the  first  and 
the  fifteenth, are  not  observed  if  there  is  a press  of  work.  If 
these  hours  appear  too  long,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the 
Japanese  workman,  like  his  brother  worker  in  the  South  of 
Europe,  does  not  labour  with  the  intensity  that  distinguishes 
the  Englishman  or  the  American.  As  to  the  employment  of 
women,  they  are  only  engaged  in  the  match  factories,  and  their 
work  is  of  the  lightest. 

Nevertheless,  attention  in  Japan  is  being  directed  towards 
these  two  very  important  questions,  which  will,  doubtless, 
sooner  or  later,  receive  proper  attention  and  be  modified. 
Wages  are  already  rising,  as  the  workpeople  begin  to  understand 
their  worth  and  their  own  interests,  and  to  know  how  to  pro- 
tect them.  A danger  to  which  the  Japanese  industries  are 
exposed  is  undoubtedly  due  to  a diminution  of  capital,  the  result 
of  over-production  after  the  late  war,  which  brought  about 
much  the  same  phase  that  occurred  in  the  commercial  history 
of  Germany  after  the  Franco-German  War.  However,  the 
financial  crisis  of  i8y8  and  the  competition  recently  created 
at  Shanghai  have  created  a certain  degree  of  anxiety  concerning 
the  immediate  future  of  Japanese  industry;  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  magnificent  results  obtained  in  such  a surprisingly 
short  time,  and  the  courageous  manner  in  which  this  industrious 
people  have  overcome  the  many  difficulties  which  beset  them  in 
the  earlier  stages  of  their  career,  must  not  be  forgotten. 


124 


CHAPTER  V 


RURAL  JAPAN 

Predominance  of  agriculture  in  the  economic  existence  of  Japan — Density 
of  the  rustic  population  in  the  plains  and  lower  valleys — Importance 
of  the  Japanese  fisheries  with  respect  to  the  food  supply  of  the  people 
— Principal  crops:  rice,  tea  and  mulberry  trees  — Absence  of  domestic 
animals — Returns  of  Japanese  agriculture — Small  holdings — ^Japanese 
peasantry,  their  vegetarian  or  ichthyophagian  diet — Their  dwellings — 
Position  of  women — Their  extreme  cleanliness,  politeness  and  good 
nature — Cost  of  living — Amelioration  of  peasant  life  in  Japan  after 
the  Restoration — Spread  of  Western  civilization  and  instruction  among 
them. 

Notwithstanding  the  rapid  industrial  development  which  has 
recently  taken  place  in  Japan,  the  greater  proportion  of  the 
population  is  still  essentially  rural,  and  derives,  if  not  all,  at 
least  the  greater  part  of  its  means  of  subsistence  from  the  soil. 
Petty  industries,  however,  abound  and  materially  assist  this 
hard-working  people  to  add  to  their  very  small  incomes.  Along 
the  indented  coasts  of  the  islands,  and  on  the  shores  of  the 
Inland  Sea,  innumerable  little  villages  will  be  found,  whose 
inhabitants  depend  entirely  for  their  subsistence  upon  the 
fisheries,  but  notwithstanding  their  importance,  Japan  may  be 
described  as  an  essentially  agricultural  country.  It  is,  also, 
the  cultivation  of  the  soil  which  supplies  the  raw  material  of 
the  silk,  still  one  of  the  staple  export  industries,  and  also  of 
another  very  important  article  of  exportation,  tea.  On  a total 
export  in  1896  of  1,650,000  worth  of  Japanese  products,  tea 
represented  ^637,200,  rice  ;£'795, 100,  raw  silk  cocoons  and  silk- 
ravel  ;^3, 166,600.  If  we  add  to  these  figures  about  ;;^4, 700,000 
worth  of  miscellaneous  products,  or  14  per  cent.,  and  add  also 
about  200,000,  or  40  per  cent.,  of  raw  or  unprepared  produce, 
we  shall  find  that  the  aggregate  value  of  agricultural  products  of 

125 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


all  kinds  reaches  the  respectable  figure  of  ;^5, 950,000,  more 
than  half  that  of  the  total  export.  Notwithstanding  their  import- 
ance, the  area  devoted  to  the  culture  of  the  tea-plant  and  the 
mulberry-tree  is  relatively  small  as  compared  with  that  devoted 
to  rice,  which  is  the  staple  article  of  food  of  the  whole  of  the 
Far  East.  The  extensive  culture  of  this  latter  accounts  for  the 
peculiarity  often  noticed  in  Japanese  landscapes,  that  you  never 
see  any  of  those  gentle  hill-slopes  which  are  so  familiar  in 
France.  The  hills  rise  abruptly  from  the  stagnant  waters,  and 
seem  cut  into  three  or  four  broad  step-like  terraces,  possibly 
the  result  of  the  action  of  the  water  which  inundates  the  rice- 
fields.  When  I was  in  Japan,  in  the  autumn,  the  rice  harvest 
was  just  over,  and  the  country  would  have  looked  very  dismal 
on  account  of  the  drab  colour  of  the  muddy  soil,  divided  up 
like  a chess-board  into  regular  squares,  from  which  the  rice 
had  been  recently  cut,  and  now  covered  by  a thin  layer  of  dry 
weeds,  had  it  not  been  for  the  peculiarly  elegant  shapes  of 
surrounding  heights  which  are  shaded  by  those  delightful  firs 
so  familiar  to  us  in  old  Japanese  prints.  The  lace-like  curtains 
of  bamboo  clustering  here  and  there  added  also  to  the  variety 
and  charm  of  the  scene,  which  was  further  enhanced  by  the 
numerous  cryptomerias,  whose  superb  foliage  contrasted  vividly 
with  the  brown  and  the  red  of  the  maples  that  are  invariably 
planted  around  the  charming  little  temples  dotted  about  in  all 
directions.  In  the  hilly  districts  the  beauty  of  the  trees  breaks 
the  monotony  of  the  rice-fields  and  of  the  reclaimed  waste- 
lands, but  in  the  plains  and  valleys  there  is  not  one  to  be  seen, 
every  inch  of  land  being  most  carefully  cultivated. 

The  rural  population  of  Japan  is  marvellously  dense,  incom- 
parably more  so  than  in  any  part  of  Europe.  On  an  area  but 
little  greater  than  that  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  Japan 
contains  42,270,620  inhabitants,  that  is  to  say,  284  souls  per 
square  mile,  including  the  large  southern  island  of  Yezo,  which 
is  very  sparsely  peopled.  Not  taking  this  very  extensive  island 
into  account,  it  will  be  safe  to  state  that  the  population  of 
Japan  is  twice  as  dense  as  that  of  France,  and  only  equalled  by 
that  of  Belgium,  an  absolutely  industrial  country,  whereas  at 
least  80  per  cent,  of  the  Japanese  live  in  the  country.  Certain 
provinces,  Shiko  and  Sitama,  for  instance,  to  the  north-east  of 
Tokio,  respectively  boast  of  604  and  709  to  the  square  mile, 
although  the  capital  cities  of  these  two  provinces  contain  re- 
spectively only  26,000  and  20,000  inhabitants.  The  island  of 

126 


JAPAN 

Shikoku  and  the  province  of  Kagawa,  on  the  other  hand,  which 
possesses  only  one  large  town,  Takamatsu,  with  34,000  inhabi- 
tants, has  a population  that  reaches  the  phenomenal  figure  of 
998  souls  to  every  square  mile.  In  only  thirty-six  out  of  forty- 
six  Japanese  provinces,  exclusive  ofYezo,  are  there  less  than 
250  inhabitants  to  the  square  mile,  and  in  only  four,  three  of 
which  are  at  the  extreme  north  and  one  at  the  south,  is  the 
population  less  crowded  than  in  most  parts  of  France.  The 
following  statistical  table  shows  the  population,  with  its  relative 
density : 


Square  mites. 

Population. 

Density  per 
square  mile. 

Nippon,  Northern  ...  ... 

30.556 

6,455,287 

191 

,,  Central 

37.028 

16.368,995 

442 

,,  Western  ...  ... 

Island  of  Shikoku  ... 

20,922 

9,523,168 

453 

7.113 

2,929.639 

412 

,,  Kiu-Siu 

17,037 

6,524,024 

384 

Hokkaido,  or  Yezo  ... 

36.734 

469,507 

«3 

149.390 

42,270,620 

316 

Formosa  

8.995 

2,041,809 

228 

158,385 

44,312,429 

272 

Even  more  remarkable  than  the  population  is  the  small 
area  of  cultivated  land  required  to  support  such  an  immense 
number  of  people.  Japan  is  an  extremely  mountainous 
country,  and  although  the  plains  and  valleys,  especially  in  the 
east  and  south,  are  admirably  cultivated,  and  the  rice-fields 
occasionally  cover  hills  that  slope  so  close  to  the  sea  as  not 
to  allow  of  the  existence  of  even  a small  fringe  of  culti- 
vable land,  the  mountain  ranges  in  the  interior  are  still 
covered  with  forests,  and  even  the  northern  part  of  the  great 
island,  where  the  land  is  excellent,  is  quite  uncultivated. 
According  to  recent  statistics,  about  one-fifth  of  the  total 
surface  of  the  country  has  been  reclaimed  and  subdivided  into 
a remarkable  number  of  small  farms  and  tenements.  The 
forest  lands,  on  the  other  hand,  cover  88,632  square  miles,  of 
which  28,544  square  miles  belong  to  private  owners,  51,834 
square  miles  to  the  State  or  to  the  various  provinces,  and 
8,254  square  miles  are  Crown  lands.  The  remainder  of  the 
island  is  occupied  by  moors,  uncultivated  tracts  of  land,  ex- 

127 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


tremely  extensive  in  Yezo,  where  the  forests  are  of  vast  extent, 
and  where  only  1,269  square  miles  of  land  repay  cultivation.  If 
we  leave  aside  the  northern  island,  and  only  take  into  considera- 
tion the  land  occupied  by  99  per  cent,  of  the  Japanese  popula- 
tion, we  discover  that,  exclusive  of  67,571  square  miles  of 
forestland,  only  21,234  square  miles  provide  food  for  42,000,000 
people,  whereas  in  France  there  are  about  56,917  square 
miles  devoted  to  cereals  alone,  and  if  we  add  potatoes,  vine- 
yards and  other  edibles,  we  arrive  at  a total  of  75,889  square 
miles  for  a population  much  inferior  to  that  of  Japan ; more- 
over, France  imports  provisions  very  largely  from  other 
countries. 

In  England  and  in  France,  as  in  most  other  European 
countries,  very  extensive  and  superior  pasture  lands  are  set  aside 
for  the  forage  of  domestic  animals  intended  for  food.  In  Japan 
there  is  nothing  of  the  sort.  On  the  high-roads  you  will  meet 
peasants  dragging  their  own  carts  and  waggons,  and  if  you 
travel  by  any  other  means  than  the  railway,  it  will  be  in  a 
jinrikisha  hurried  along  by  human  runners,  or  in  a palanquin 
carried  on  men’s  shoulders,  rarely,  if  ever,  in  a carriage  or  on 
horseback.  Sheep  and  goats  are  absolutely  unknown  in  the 
Empire,  but  I am  assured  there  are  a few  pigs,  although  I 
never  saw  any.  A European  who  had  lived  many  years  in 
Japan  assured  me  he  had  travelled  for  twelve  hours  by  rail 
without  seeing  a bullock  or  a cow ; in  the  west,  however,  I 
myself  have  often  met  with  cattle.  The  scarcity  of  animals  is 
one  of  the  peculiarities  of  Japan  which  most  surprises  the 
traveller.  Statistics  confirm  this  impression,  for  they  give  only 
a return  of  1,097,000  head  of  cattle  and  1,477,000  horses. 

Doubtless  this  singularity  may  be  attributed  to  the  pre- 
dominance of  the  Buddhist  religion,  which  prohibits  the  eating 
of  flesh,  notwithstanding  which  the  Japanese  are  not  above 
relishing  a fowl,  although  poultry  is  nothing  like  as  abundant 
as  it  is  in  our  villages.  The  very  great  quantity  of  fish 
eaten  doubtless  accounts  for  this  enormous  population  being 
able  to  exist  in  so  mountainous  a country  on  such  an 
abstemious  diet.  The  various  fishing  industries  for  1894  re- 
turned produce  valued  at  ^2.’] 40,000.  We  have  already 
mentioned  the  countless  fishing  villages  which  send  out  a fleet 
of  not  less  than  600,000  of  those  graceful  one-sailed  junks 
that  sometimes  seriously  impede  the  progress  of  the  numerous 
steamers  in  the  Inland  Sea.  The  secondary  and  very  rocky 

128 


JAPAN 


island  of  Awaju  does  not  contain  a single  town,  but  never- 
theless can  boast  of  a population  of  198,000  inhabitants,  spread 
over  an  area  of  only  220  square  miles,  subsisting  entirely  on  its 
fishing  industries. 

The  importance  of  the  fisheries  does  not  prevent  Japanese 
agriculture  from  taking  a foremost  position,  and  it  must  be 
admitted  that  farming  must  have  reached  a high  degree  of  per- 
fection if  the  limited  space  allotted  to  it  can  support  such  a 
dense  population,  a fact  all  the  more  remarkable  when  we 
remember  that  Japan  imports  very  few  articles  of  food.  It 
is  true  that  in  many  places  there  are  two  crops  yearly, 
although  rice  has  only  two  harvests  in  the  southern  island  of 
Shokoku ; in  many  other  places,  in  November,  as  soon  as  this 
has  been  gathered,  the  earth  is  manured  again  and  sown  with 
barley,  or  daikon,  a kind  of  monster  turnip.  The  following 
statistics  of  1895,  which  give  the  extent  of  cultivated  land  and 
the  nature  of  the  various  products,  will  serve  to  illustrate  how 
relatively  great  these  are  when  compared  with  the  area  of  land 
in  cultivation. 


Area  in  Acres. 

Produce. 

Rice  ... 

6,821,694 

195.612,321  bshls. 

Barley  ... 

1,600,632 

33,830,173  » 

Rye  ... 

1,649,390 

34,377,074  „ 

Wheat... 

1,09  >.257 

19,470  855  „ 

Peas  and  azuki 

1..8 18.779 

17,701,808  „ 

Millet 

848,282 

18,633,157  „ 

Buckwheat  ... 

422,928 

5,891,613  „ 

Sweet  potatoes 

586,478 

1,865,709  cwts. 

Potatoes 

56,727 

18,598,076  „ 

Colza...  ... 

374,072 

4,932,246  bshls. 

Cotton 

148,649 

471,978  cwts. 

Hemp... 

51,431 

102,967  ,, 

Indigo  ... 

114,999 

579,298  „ 

Tobacco  ... 

88,i?S 

279,870  „ 

Mulberry-trees 

• •• 

675,972 

279,870  „ 

Tea 

... 

123,404 

635,979  „ 

The  absence  of  domestic  animals  obliges  the  Japanese  to 
have  recourse  to  novel  methods  of  manuring  the  land.  The 
rice-fields  are  strewn  with  green  grass,  freshly  cut  in  openings 
in  the  forests  and  on  the  mountain  sides,  which,  when  covered 
with  muddy  water,  speedily  decomposes ; to  this  lime  is  some- 

129  K 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


times  added.  Excrements  of  all  kinds  are  also  largely  em- 
ployed in  all  fields  except  those  devoted  to  the  cultivation 
of  rice,  and  along  the  coast  line  fish  manure  is  much 
used. 

Everywhere,  excepting  in  Yezo,  the  cultivation  of  rice  pre- 
ponderates, especially  in  the  northern  part  of  the  principal 
island,  mainly  because  the  climate  is  elsewhere  too  cold  to  allow 
of  any  other  crop  being  sown  during  the  winter  and  spring, 
Earley  and  wheat  are  grown  mainly  in  the  centre  of  the  great 
island  of  Nippon,  rye  in  the  western  parts  of  the  same 
island,  and  also  in  the  two  southern  islands  of  Shikoku  and 
Kiu-siu,  the  last  named  of  which  produces  sweet  potatoes  in 
abundance.  These  were  originally  imported  from  Java  to  Sat- 
suma,  and  are  still  called  Satsuma-imo,  or  Satsuma  potatoes. 
Tobacco,  which  was  introduced  by  the  Portuguese  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  and  which  is  universally  used  all  over  the 
islands,  being  one  of  the  few  customs  the  Japanese  have  re- 
tained from  their  first  contact  with  Europeans,  is  cultivated 
everywhere,  except,  perhaps,  in  the  north.  The  mulberry- 
tree  grows  exclusively  in  the  mountainous  regions  of  the 
centre,  and  only  in  very  small  quantities  in  the  north.  Tea 
will  be  met  with,  on  the  other  hand,  only  in  the  plains,  and  at 
the  foot  of  the  lower  ranges  of  hills.  From  the  windows  of 
the  train  which  passes  from  Tokio  to  Kioto,  and  principally 
in  the  environs  of  this  last-named  town,  as  also  of  Osaka  and 
Nara,  one  sees  extensive  tea-plantations  lifting  their  deep,  green 
foliage  from  the  rice-fields. 

As  may  well  be  imagined,  owing  to  the  smallness  of  his 
tenement,  the  Japanese  peasant  is  by  no  means  rich,  and  has  to 
live  on  very  little.  In  the  plains  he  subsists  mainly  on  rice 
boiled  in  water,  precisely  as  do  the  workpeople  in  the  towns,  a 
little  fish  seasoned  with  soy,  or  Japanese  sauce,  flavours  this 
very  simple  menu,  which  also  includes  a few  eggs,  and  occa- 
sionally a chicken,  a little  game,  or  a wild  duck.  In  the 
mountains,  where  the  people  are  very  poor,  and  rice  is  con- 
sidered a luxury,  barley  and  millet  are  sometimes  substituted. 
The  fisher-folk  replace  this  almost  exclusively  vegetarian  diet 
by  the  produce  of  their  work.  Even  among  well-off  people 
in  the  towns  the  principal  dish  at  dinner  consists  of  boiled 
rice.  During  meals  the  usual  drink  is  hot  sake,  which  the 
guests  offer  each  other  in  little  cups  with  a good  deal  of  polite 
ceremony.  This  very  weak  form  of  brandy  is  distilled  from 

130 


JAPAN 


rice,  and  about  150,000,000  gallons  of  it  are  consumed  annually. 
The  other  great  Japanese  drink  is  green  tea. 

The  Japanese  peasantry  usually  live  in  small  villages, 
separated  from  each  other  only  by  a few  hundred  yards. 
Sometimes,  however,  their  houses  are  built  in  little  groups  of 
four  or  five,  but  it  is  extremely  rare  to  find  a peasant’s  cottage 
quite  isolated.  Nothing  can  exceed  the  simplicity  of  the 
construction  of  these  habitations,  which  only  differ  from  those 
of  the  townspeople  by  their  lofty  and  heavy  thatched  roofs, 
which  usually  contain  a granary,  and  are  supported  by  very  stout 
wooden  pillars,  rising  from  a heap  of  stones  placed  on  the  bare 
ground,  without  any  attempt  at  a foundation.  Those  walls  only 
which  support  the  gable  are  solidly  built  with  clay  kept  together 
by  a bamboo  lattice.  The  two  principal  facades  stand  back 
about  a yard  inside  the  pillars,  and  consist  of  paper  screens 
which  slide  backwards  and  forwards.  At  night,  or  in  stormy 
weather,  these  screens  are  replaced  by  wooden  shutters.  The 
whole  front  is  thrown  wide  open  when  the  w'eather  is  fine  or 
there  is  a ray  of  sunshine,  so  that  passers  by  may  have  a full 
view  of  the  interior.  It  is  this  curious  fashion  of  living  in 
public  which  most  strikes  the  traveller  who  arrives  in  Japan 
from  China,  where  you  cannot  even  see  what  is  going  on  in  the 
outer  courtyard,  and  is  one  of  the  chief  characteristics  that 
differentiate  the  Japanese  from  all  other  Orientals.  Another 
very  striking  feature  is  the  scrupulous  cleanliness  which  reigns 
in  these  dw'ellings,  whose  only  furniture  are  tatamis,  or  thick 
straw  mats,  which  cover  the  floor  of  the  whole  house,  excepting 
a space  immediately  opposite  the  door  where  visitors  are 
expected  to  leave  their  boots  and  slippers. 

The  total  absence  of  furniture,  added  to  an  equal  lack  of 
heating  apparatus  and  to  the  non-existence  of  any  means  of 
shutting  out  cold  and  draughts,  at  first  gives  one  an  impression 
of  extreme  discomfort,  but  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  when 
the  Japanese  adopted  Chinese  civilization  they  rejected  three 
things  ; chairs,  coverlets,  and  stoves.  The  Imperial  palaces  at 
Kioto  would  make  one  of  our  humblest  cottages,  so  far  as 
furniture  is  concerned,  appear  quite  luxurious.  At  Hirashima, 
a town  of  100,000  inhabitants,  the  principal  hotel  is  kept  by  a 
Japanese,  and  although  lighted  by  electricity  and  possessing  a 
telephone,  the  guests  are  expected  to  sit  upon  the  floor,  and  only 
to  warm  the  tips  of  their  fingers  at  the  two  or  three  little  scraps 
of  burning  embers  in  the  hibachi,  and  in  the  morning,  although 

131  K 2 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


It  may  be  freezing,  they  have  to  perform  their  toilet  in  the 
open  courtyard.  When  I was  in  this  city  I visited  the  house 
occupied  by  the  Emperor  during  the  Chinese  War,  and  was 
shown  his  study,  which  contained  merely  an  arm-chair,  a few 
other  chairs,  and  by  way  of  stove  only  a hibachi,  of  exquisite 
workmanship,  it  is  true  — black  lacquer  worked  over  with 
gold. 

The  emptiness  of  a Japanese  peasant’s  home  is,  therefore, 
no  sign  of  extreme  poverty,  and  although  we  may  describe  him 
as  poor,  as  his  capital  is  extremely  small,  there  is  no  reason  to 
describe  him  as  destitute.  In  summer  he  is  dressed  as  lightly 
as  possible,  and  in  winter  as  warmly,  always  in  deep  blue,  in 
contrast  to  the  light  blue  affected  by  the  Chinese.  The  men 
wear  a pair  of  trousers,  or  rather  a tight-fitting  pair  of  drawers 
that  reach  to  the  ankles,  and  an  ample  vest  with  pagoda 
sleeves.  The  women,  on  the  other  hand,  wear  one  or  two 
skirts  reaching  half-way  down  their  legs,  and  gaiters  or  stock- 
ings without  feet,  the  whole  made  of  cotton  or  dark  blue  linen 
and  joining  the  tabi,  or  little  shoe,  which  ascends  above  the 
ankle. 

Japanese  women  enjoy  greater  freedom  than  any  other  women 
outside  Europe.  They  may  come  and  go  wherever  and 
whenever  they  like,  and  chatter  with  whom  they  choose. 
Whereas  in  China  you  never  see  a woman  in  a tavern,  in  Japan 
you  very  frequently  see  only  women.  At  an  inn  you  are 
always  received  by  the  wife  of  your  host  and  by  a whole 
troop  of  young  girls,  who  serve  you,  and  keep  you  com- 
pany. The  women,  when  they  have  finished  their  house- 
hold duties,  which  are  very  slight,  share  with  the  men  the 
labour  in  the  fields ; and  I remember  seeing  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Kioto  a woman  with  a child  on  her  back  helping  her 
husband  to  drag  a waggon  along.  One  is  astonished  to  per- 
ceive with  what  persistent  good-humour  these  small  but  very 
hardy  people  perform  their  very  heavy  work.  In  the  midst  of 
the  trying  labours  of  the  rice-fields,  with  their  feet  benumbed 
by  the  cold  mud  during  the  harvest,  which  is  gathered  in 
November,  they  ate  invariably  gay  and  happy.  Doubtless 
that  which  contributes  most  to  their  cheerfulness  is  the  fact 
that  they  are  far  ahead  of  the  corresponding  class  in  any  other 
country  in  the  matter  of  artistic  instinct.  There  are  very  few 
of  them  but  preserve  some  curiosity  in  bronze  or  lacquer, 
which  has  been  handed  down  by  ancestors,  and  which,  of  all 

1.^2 


JAPAN 


the  scanty  heirlooms,  is  the  one  thing  most  valued.  They  are, 
moreover,  passionately  fond  of  nature. 

Every  season  of  the  year  has  its  flowers,  wild  or  cultivated, 
from  the  plum-trees  in  February  to  the  deep,  red-leaved  maples 
in  November,  and  every  district  has  some  particular  spot  cele- 
brated for  the  beauty  and  abundance  of  this  or  that  flower. 
Thither  the  w!  ole  neighbourhood  goes  in  gay  crowds  to  enjoy 
and  admire  them.  In  that  season  of  the  year  when  they  have 
less  to  do,  the  peasants,  who  are  indefatigable  walkers,  under 
the  pretext  of  a pilgrimage,  go  incredible  distances  to  visit  some 
beautiful  site,  or  a famous  temple,  usually  surrounded  by  mag- 
nificent trees.  Then,  again,  their  domestic  industries  supply 
them  with  a great  deal  of  light  work,  which  tends  to  render 
their  existence  less  monotonous  than  it  otherwise  might  be. 
In  order  to  give  my  readers  an  idea  of  the  cost  of  living  in 
Japan,  I copy  from  the  Japan  Times  the  following  table  of  the 
expenses  of  the  family  of  a schoolmaster  in  the  province  of 
Rikuzen,  in  the  north  of  the  principal  island. 

Expenses  for  Three  Persons— Husband,  Wife,  and  Infant  of 
FROM  Six  to  Seven  Years  of  Age. 


£ 

s. 

d. 

3 to  (i  to=a,  gallons)  3rd  quality  rice  ... 

...  0 

9 

2 

Vegetables  and  fish 

••• 

...  0 

3 

0 

House  linen 

••• 

...  0 

3 

0 

Rent  of  house 

•••  ••• 

...  0 

I 

Lighting  and  heating 

...  .«• 

...  0 

I 

6 

^ sho  (i  sho=\  gallon)  2nd  quality 

soy  (sauce) 

...  0 

0 

lOj 

Tea 

..  ••• 

...  0 

0 

7 

Writing  materials  .. 

• •• 

...  ... 

...  0 

0 

7 

Education  of  child... 

•»«  ... 

...  0 

0 

5 

Baths  every  three  days 

•*« 

...  0 

0 

5 

Taxes  ... 

•»« 

•»« 

...  0 

0 

3i 

Footgear 

*«Ni  •»« 

...  0 

0 

3i 

Extras  ... 

...  0 

0 

11 

Total  ... 

•••  ••• 

...  I 

2 

8 

Or,  in  other  words,  about 

3s.  for  the 

month. 

To  this 

must  be  added  los.  a year  for  clothing,  making  a total  of 
;^i5  2s.  for  the  year.  These  figures  were  compiled  in  1897, 
when  the  price  of  provisions  had  considerably  increased.  It 
must,  however,  be  stated  that  they  exceeded  the  salary  of  the 
unfortunate  teacher,  which  has  not  been  raised,  and  is  only 
a month. 


*33 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 

The  peasantry  have  certainly  benefited  by  the  abolition  of 
the  old  form  of  government,  and  Western  civilization  is  even 
now  commencing  to  penetrate  among  them.  They  light  their 
dwellings  with  petroleum,  and,  although  their  notions  of  the 
value  of  time  are  exceedingly  simple,  nearly  all  of  them  possess 
a watch  or  a clock.  Most  have  adopted  European  caps  or 
hats,  and  none  of  the  men  shave  their  heads  as  they  did  in 
olden  times ; moreover,  they  never  express  the  least  oppo- 
sition to  the  encroachments  of  modern  civilization,  but,  on 
the  contrary,  invariably  display  curiosity  and  a great  desire 
to  try  experiments.  Public  education  is  theoretically  obliga- 
tory, and  about  8o  per  cent,  of  the  boys  and  40  per  cent,  of 
the  girls  attend  schools,  where  they  are  taught  to  read  and  to 
write  about  100  Chinese  characters,  as  well  as  the  two  syllabic 
Japanese  alphabets,  in  addition  to  one  or  two  other  general 
things.  The  schoolmasters,  having  been  too  hastily  recruited, 
may  have  been  educated  too  much  on  the  old  fashioned 
Chinese  lines ; but,  nevertheless,  modern  ideas  are  making 
headway,  and  in  the  course  of  time  will  undoubtedly  carry  the 
field. 

The  Japanese  people,  even  in  the  country,  are  definitely  on 
the  road  to  progress.  It  would  be  unwise  to  change  everything 
from  the  night  to  the  morning  as  by  the  touch  of  a magician’s 
wand,  but  undoubtedly  the  first  impulse  has  been  given,  and 
has  met  with  no  resistance.  From  the  agricultural  point  of 
view,  there  can  be  no  question  that  the  Japanese  have  much  to 
learn,  not  so  much  with  respect  to  those  products  which  they 
already  cultivate,  but  to  the  introduction  of  others  besides  the 
all-prevalent  rice.  These  reforms  will  be  very  difficult  to 
bring  about,  for  the  obvious  reason  that  the  small  farmers 
only  accept  changes  with  extreme  caution ; but  in  the  course 
of  time  they  will  have  to  be  introduced,  especially  when  we 
reflect  that  the  population  of  Japan  increases  at  the  rate  of 
300,000  souls  per  annum,  and  the  extent  of  territory  which  has 
been  reclaimed  and  is  in  cultivation  is  so  small  in  proportion 
to  the  density  of  the  population. 


CHAPTER  VI 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  JAPANESE  COMMERCE 

Progress  of  Japanese  commerce  in  the  last  fifteen  years — Remarkable 
increase  of  exports  and  of  the  importation  of  raw  material — Im- 
portation of  capital  in  the  form  of  machinery  for  native  manufactories 
— Countries  interested  in  Japanese  commerce — Japanese  merchants 
accused  of  occasionally  producing  inferior  articles  and  not  fulfilling 
their  contracts — The  reasons  for  the  excess  of  imports  over  exports  in 
the  years  1894-98. 

Nothing  can  better  illustrate  the  rapid  progress  made  in 
Japanese  commerce  during  the  last  thirty  years  than  the 
development  of  her  import  and  export  trade,  which  is  regu- 
larly recorded  in  a pamphlet  published  by  the  Japanese 
Minister  of  P'inance,  both  in  Japanese  and  English,  entitled 
the  ‘ Monthly  Return  of  the  Foreign  Trade  of  the  Empire  of 
Japan,’  which  gives  the  fullest  particulars  respecting  the  com- 
mercial operations  of  the  month,  as  well  as  a rdsum^  of  what 
has  recently  transpired.  Each  spring  a complete  volume  is 
issued  which  supplies  further  details,  and  gives  a table  showing 
the  commercial  status  throughout  the  preceding  year.  Accord- 
ing to  the  figures  given  in  this  document,  which  are  extremely 
accurate,  the  exports  in  1898  attained  the  unusually  high  figure 
of  6,570,000,  and  the  imports;,^ 2 7, 700, 000,  making  a total 
of  ;^44, 2 70,000.  The  following  table  displays  very  clearly  the 
prodigious  advance  made  in  Japanese  commerce  during  the 
thirty  years  included  between  1868  and  1898. 

The  figures  in  the  original  document  are,  of  course,  given  in 
Japanese  currency,  but,  for  the  convenience  of  English  readers, 
they  are  here  rendered  by  their  equivalent  in  English  money, 
taking  the  yen  at  two  shillings,  the  rate  it  has  held  for  a 
considerable  time  past. 


13s 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


Japanese  Foreign  Commerce. 


Imports. 

Exports. 

1868 

;^i,o7o,ooo 

;^I,S  50,000 

1879 

3,300,000 

2,820,000 

1884 

3.220.000 

3,400,000 

1889 

6,620,000 

7,020,000 

1894 

12,170,000 

11,330,000 

189s 

13,870,000 

13,620,000 

1896 

17,170,000 

1 1,780,000 

1897 

21,930,000 

16,310,000 

1898 

27,700,000 

16,570,000 

By  studying  the  statistics  published  in  this  official  pamphlet, 
we  find  that  out  of  ;^3,58i,2oo  of  indigenous  articles  exported 
from  Japan  in  1883,  ;^2, 7 13,900  were  of  a purely  agricultural 
character,  and  only  ;^242,2oo  represented  articles  manufactured 
in  the  country.  This  last  class  consisted  only  of  the  various 
articles  included  among  the  ancient  art  industries  of  Japan  : 
;^54,400  worth  of  ceramics  and  pottery,  ^1^54,300  of  lacquer, 
;^26,ioo  of  paper  fans,  umbrellas,  and  fandy  goods  generally, 
etc.  The  silk  industries  did  not  even  attain  the  comparatively 
low  figure  of  ;,^9,ooo.  Five  years  later,  in  1888,  the  situation 
was  entirely  changed.  The  e.xport  of  indigenous  merchandise 
exceeded  ;£'6,489, 100,  of  which  only  68‘6  per  cent,  instead  of 
7 6 ’4  per  cent,  represented  agricultural  produce,  3 per  cent, 
instead  of  3 4 per  cent,  forestries,  5 ’2  per  cent,  instead  of  6-7 
per  cent,  of  the  total  amount  fisheries  ; on  the  other  hand,  the 
various  minerals  had  risen  from  6 7 per  cent,  to  1 1'2  per  cent., 
and  manufactured  goods  rose  from  6'8  per  cent,  to  ii'8  per 
cent.  Japan  also  exported  ;^35o,ooo  worth  of  copper  and 
;^3oo,ooo  worth  of  coal.  The  silk  manufactories  exported  silk 
goods  to  the  extent  of  ;;^i68,ooo,  and  all  the  art  industries, 
with  the  sole  exception  of  the  lacquer,  which  remained  stationary, 
rose  very  considerably  in  value.  To  these  figures  must  be 
added  the  returns  of  certain  other  commercial  products  of  a 
kind  totally  unknown  in  Japan  a quarter  of  a century  ago 
— matches,  for  instance,  of  which  ^^^74,000  worth  were  ex- 
ported. 

A glance  at  the  following  figures  will  show  of  what  the 
Japanese  export  trade  during  the  last  three  years  was  com- 
posed, and  the  nature  of  the  goods. 

136 


JAPAN 

Principal  Exports  from  Japan  in  1895,  ^^97 


1895. 

CO 

1897. 

1898. 

Raw  silk  and  cocoons 

,^4,800,000 

;^2, 880,000 

^$■5, 560,000 

,^4,200,000 

Silk  ‘ravel’... 

• •• 

290,000 

280,000 

300,000 

270,000 

Tea  ... 

• •• 

820,000 

640,000 

780,000 

820,000 

Rice  ...  .M 

• •• 

720,000 

790,000 

610,000 

590,000 

Camphor  ... 

150,000 

1 10,000 

130,000 

120,000 

? 

Cuttle-fish  ... 

• •• 

100,000 

760,000 

I IO,OCO 

140,000 

Coal  ... 

• •• 

890,000 

1,150,000 

580,000 

1,520,000 

Copper 

... 

520,000 

550,000 

730,000 

Tissues  and  silk  hand- 

kerchiefs  ... 

1,530,000 

1,200,000 

1,320,000 

1,600,000 

Sewing  cotton 

... 

100,000 

400,000 

1,350,000 

2,010,000 

260,000 

Spun  cotton... 

• «. 

240,000 

230,000 

260.000 

560.000 

Matches 

... 

470,000 

500,000 

630,000 

Mats  and  straw  goods 

480.000 

530,000 

640,000 

630,000 

i 

Fans  and  screens 

... 

80,000 

100,000 

120,000 

180,000 

Pottery 

200,000 

200,000 

200,000 

Altogether  the  chief  manufactured  articles  exported  in  the 
year  1895  were  valued  at  ^^4, 000, 000 ; three  years  later  they 
rose  in  value  to  ;^6, 300,000. 

At  the  present  moment  goods  which  were  absolutely  un- 
known in  Japan  in  1850  are  exported  from  that  country  all 
over  the  East  from  Korea  to  Singapore;  and  Japanese  cotton 
goods,  the  raw  material  for  which  has  to  be  imported  from 
India,  compete  with  Chinese  materials  of  the  same  class,  the  raw 
material  for  which  is  obtained  from  the  same  country.  Needless 
to  say,  Japanese  silks  and  mats  can  be  procured  in  every  part 
of  the  world,  and  their  coal,  though  inferior  to  the  Welsh, 
being  greasy,  emitting  great  quantities  of  smoke  and  burning 
away  quickly,  is  very  cheap,  and  is  supplied  to  all  the  steamers 
touching  at  the  ports  of  the  Far  East  from  Korea  to  the  Straits 
of  Malacca.  In  the  meantime,  those  industries  for  which 
Japan  has  always  been  noted  have  not  diminished  in  import- 
ance. It  must,  however,  be  confessed  that  this  branch  of 
industry  has  decreased  both  in  quality  and  beauty,  the  result, 
doubtless,  of  hasty  and  purely  commercial  production.  If, 
however,  very  fine  work  is  not  produced  so  much  as  it  was 
formerly,  cheap  Japanese  artistic  goods,  ceramic  and  other- 
wise, flood  the  markets  of  the  civilized  world.  A curious 
fact  connected  with  the  actual  condition  of  Japanese  export 
trade  is  the  remarkable  extension  and  increase  in  value  of  what 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


might  be  called  the  new  industries,  of  which  by  far  the  most 
important  are  those  connected  with  cotton. 

Meanwhile,  the  import  trade  has  lately  been  considerably 
altered.  Fifteen  years  ago  Japan  imported  sugar  and  petroleum 
only.  In  1897  raw  cotton  was  introduced  to  the  value  of 
;^4, 300,000.  If  we  add  to  this  00,000  worth  of  wool, 
^'93,400  of  pig-iron,  ;;^47,7oo  of  steel,  and  one  or  two  other 
minor  items,  we  have  a return  of  ^^5, 900,000,  or  23  per  cent,  of 
the  entire  imports ; the  food  imports  during  the  same  year 
were  also  23  per  cent.  The  increase  in  the  value  of  these  latter 
in  1897,  which  stood  at  _;^5, 900,000  as  against  _;^3,4oo,ooo  in 
the  previous  year,  is  due  to  the  failure  of  the  rice  crop,  which 
necessitated  the  importation  of  3,800,000  cwt.  of  rice,  valued 
at  ^2, 1 80,000.  A certain  quantity  of  rice,  between  ^£"400,000 
and  ;^8oo,ooo  worth,  has  to  be  imported  annually  from  Korea 
and  Indo-China,  in  order  to  counterbalance  the  amount  of 
Japanese  rice  of  the  first  quality  exported  to  Europe  and  the 
United  States.  Besides  rice,  the  import  of  sugar  has  reached 
the  high  figure  of  980,000,  and  petroleum,  of  which 
61,000,000  gallons  were  imported  in  1897,  ^766,700. 

Imported  manufactured  goods  may  be  divided  into  two 
distinct  classes,  the  first  including  articles  of  domestic  use  or 
consumption,  and  the  second  those  which  tend  to  extend  the 
various  industries  of  the  country,  and  which  in  a sense  con- 
stitute a certain  proportion  of  capital.  In  the  first  category  may 
be  placed  spun  goods,  both  cotton  and  woollen,  and  watches; 
in  the  second,  machinery,  wrought  iron  and  steel,  rolling-stock 
and  other  materials  for  the  railways. 

Woollen  industries  did  not  exist  in  Japan  until  recently,  for 
the  simple  reason  that  sheep  were  not  introduced  until  after 
the  opening  of  the  ports  to  Europeans.  In  1897,  woollen 
goods  were  imported  to  the  value  of  .1^133,700,  and  textile 
fabrics  to  020,000 ; while  watches,  which  were  never  seen 
in  Japan  until  1850,  are  now  in  general  use,  and  in  1897, 
305,894  of  these  necessary  articles  were  imported  and  retailed 
at  an  average  of  about  12s.  each. 

The  second  class  of  manufactured  articles  imported  into  the 
Empire  in  1897  includes  ^^830,000  worth  of  wrought  iron, 
360,000  of  machinery  and  boilers,  10,000  of  locomotives 
and  railway  carriages  and  trucks,  ^330,000  of  rails,  and 
^200,000  of  other  railway  stock,  /.e.,  15  per  cent,  of  the  total 
imports.  This  rapid  development,  which  compares  very  favour- 

138 


JAPAN 


ably  with  the  two  preceding  years,  1896  and  1895,  is  mainly 
due  to  increased  activity  in  railway  construction  since  the 
Chinese  War,  and  also  to  the  rapid  commercial  expansion 
throughout  the  Empire. 

The  following  table  shows  the  manner  in  which  Japanese 
foreign  trade  was  shared  among  the  various  nations  in  1896  : 


Exportation 
from  Japan. 

Importation  into 
Japan. 

Total. 

Great  Britain 

;^90o,ooo 

;^S,92O,0OO 

;^6,820,ooo 

United  States 

3,150,000 

1,640,000 

4,780,000 

China  

1,380,000 

2,130,000 

3,510,000 

Hong-Kong  ...  ... 

2,000,000 

910,000 

2,970,000 

British  India  

450,000 

2,250,000 

2,700,000 

France  

1,900,000 

770,000 

2,670,000 

Germany  ... 

300,000 

1,720,000 

2,020,000 

Korea  ...  ... 

340,000 

510,000 

850,000 

Japan  also  carries  on  a very  extensive  trade  with  other 
countries  besides  those  above  mentioned,  among  them  Switzer- 
land, Asiatic  Russia,  Italy,  Australia,  the  Philippines,  Cochin- 
China,  Canada,  etc.,  but  in  no  case  does  it  exceed  ^^400,000 
annually.  The  relative  high  figures  of  the  business  transacted 
between  Japan  and  Hong-Kong  is  due  to  that  port  being  a 
centre  whence  goods  are  distributed  to  other  countries.  One 
striking  feature  of  the  above  table  is  tlie  preponderance  of  the 
trade  between  Japan  and  England,  from  which  country  she 
derives  all  her  cotton  and  linen  goods,  as  well  as  nine-tenths  of 
her  machinery  and  wrought  iron  (nails  excepted),  and  more 
than  half  of  her  woollens — in  a word,  the  immense  majority  of 
all  the  manufactured  commodities  imported  into  the  country. 
Germany  sends  machinery,  cloth,  almost  all  the  iron  nails, 
alcohol,  sugar  and  paper ; Belgium  and  Russia  export  manu- 
factured articles  into,  but  take  almost  nothing  from,  Japan. 
The  principal  French  import  is  mousseline  de  laine,  valued  at 
;^57o,ooo,  which  is  almost  a French  monopoly.  About  a 
fifth  of  the  goods  imported  from  America  consists  of  machinery 
and  wrought  metals ; the  rest  includes  petroleum,  raw  cotton, 
flour  and  leather.  The  United  States,  France,  and  lastly  Italy, 
are  Japan’s  principal  customers  for  raw  silk,  as  well  as  for  her 
light  spun  silks.  Five-sixths  of  the  tea  grown  in  Japan  goes  to 
America  and  the  rest  to  England.  China,  Korea  and  India 

139 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


take  almost  all  the  Japanese  matches,  while  the  coal  will  be 
found  distributed  along  the  whole  of  the  Asiatic  Coast  of  the 
Pacific.  Copper  goes  to  Hong-Kong,  Germany  and  England, 
and  rice,  camphor,  matting,  straw  and  art  goods  are  distributed 
all  over  Europe  and  the  United  States. 

This  brilliant  picture  of  Japanese  commercial  prosperity  has, 
unfortunately,  its  shady  side.  Many  complain  that  the  articles 
manufactured  in  Japan  are  not  up  to  the  mark  in  point  of 
excellence  and  finish.  As  is  generally  the  case  with  Orientals, 
they  start  well  and  make  their  first  batch  of  goods  admirably, 
but  the  quality  soon  falls  off,  probably  the  result,  not  so 
much  of  negligence,  as  of  over-hasty  production,  due  to  com- 
petition. There  can  be  no  question  that  these  and  other 
complaints  are  not  unfounded,  and  many  intelligent  Japanese 
are  the  first  to  acknowledge  and  deplore  them.  As  an  instance 
in  point,  matches  are  not  nearly  so  well  made  as  they  used 
to  be.  Many  complaints  have  also  been  made  as  to  the 
increasing  inferiority  of  a certain  class  of  silk  goods  known  as 
haboutaye  and  of  the  silk  pocket-handkerchiefs,  of  which  an 
enormous  quantity  are  exported,  with  the  result  that  the  exporta- 
tion of  these  last  mentioned  necessary  articles  fell  from  1,855,000 
dozens  in  1895,  1897.  On  the  other  hand,  there 

is  a distinct  increase  in  the  export  of  haboutaye.  Nevertheless 
many  thoughtful  people  have  watched  this  deterioration  in  the 
excellence  of  the  new  Japanese  industries  with  some  alarm, 
and  not  a few  manufacturers  who  have  had  their  attention 
drawn  to  the  matter  have  already  mended  their  ways.  The 
same  complaint  might  be  made  of  goods  manufactured  in 
certain  parts  of  Europe,  notably  in  Germany,  where  cheap  and 
showy  articles  are  fabricated  in  superabundance,  but  Japan 
would  do  well  to  maintain  her  reputation  as  high  as  possible 
as  a producer  of  all  that  is  best  in  the  market. 

Still  graver  is  the  charge  brought  against  Japanese  merchants 
of  occasional  lapses  from  a high  standard  of  honour,  and  of 
availing  themselves  of  the  slightest  possible  pretext  to  avoid 
fulfilling  the  letter  of  their  contracts,  in  which  they  contrast 
unfavourably  with  the  higher  class  of  Chinese  merchants, 
whose  reputation  for  integrity  and  for  a strict  adherence  not 
only  to  their  written,  but  also  to  their  verbal  promises,  is 
well  known,  with  some  degree,  possibly,  of  exaggeration.  It 
is  as  w’ell  to  recall  in  this  connection  that  the  Japanese  were 
until  quite  recently  a feudal  and  military  people,  who  despised 

140 


JAPAN 

trade  in  all  its  branches,  and  those  who  were  engaged  in  its 
pursuit  were  not  considered  any  the  better  for  being  honest. 
In  China,  on  the  other  hand,  it  has  ever  been  otherwise,  the 
merchants,  after  the  literati,  being  looked  upon  as  the  most 
honourable  class  in  the  Empire,  whereas  the  military  were 
invariably  despised,  being  recruited  from  the  lowest  ranks  of 
society.  Ideas  have  certainly  been  considerably  modified  in 
Japan  in  the  last  thirty  years;  still,  the  majority  of  the 
merchants  are  of  the  same  class  as  their  predecessors  when 
they  are  not  their  immediate  descendants;  therefore,  we  should 
not  be  surprised  if  they  retain  some  of  their  traditions  it  were 
better  they  were  without.  In  a word,  since  the  Restoration 
of  1868  tire  Japanese  have  done  their  best  to  get  rid  of  the 
prejudices  of  feudal  times,  but  although  these  are  fast  disap- 
pearing, some  of  their  after-effects  still  remain. 

It  has  always  been  extremely  difficult  to  induce  Orientals  to 
understand  the  value  of  time,  and  in  this  particular  the 
Japanese  are  still  on  a par  with  their  neighbours.  Foreign 
merchants  have  the  greatest  difficulty  in  persuading  their 
Japanese  correspondents  that  a few  days’,  nay,  a few  hours’ 
delay  in  the  transaction  of  business  and  in  the  despatch  of  goods 
often  leads  not  only  to  much  inconvenience,  but  to  absolute  loss. 

One  of  the  chief  desires  of  the  Japanese  at  the  present  time 
is  to  see  their  export  commerce  pass  from  the  hands  of 
foreigners,  who  hold  it,  into  their  own  ; but  they  may  rest 
assured  that  until  they  improve  their  business  habits  they  will 
not  succeed  in  carrying  out  their  object  in  this  direction. 

It  has  been  noticed  that  during  the  three  years  1896,  1897 
and  1898  the  Japanese  imports  have  been  immensely  in 
excess  of  their  exports.  This  is  probably  due  to  the  necessity 
of  obtaining  plant  in  great  quantities  for  the  immediate  increase 
of  the  many  new  industries  that  have  sprung  up  all  over  the 
country  in  so  short  a time.  This  financially  has  undoubtedly 
resulted  in  a distinct  loss  to  the  nation.  The  Chinese  War 
indemnity  brought  a good  deal  of  gold  into  the  country,  but 
the  greater  part  of  it  has  been  expended  in  augmenting  the 
navy  and  in  the  purchase  of  war  materials.  Fortunately,  trade 
throughout  Japan  in  1899  was  distinctly  flourishing,  thanks 
mainly  to  the  abundance  of  the  crops  in  the  preceding  year, 
and  also  to  a curb  having  been  put  on  exaggerated  industrial 
activity,  whereby,  as  already  intimated,  the  imports  were  in 
excess  of  the  exports,  and  the  danger  of  a crisis  in  this  direction 

141 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


was  averted.  This  extraordinary  commercial  development  in 
so  remarkably  short  a period  reflects  the  greatest  credit  upon 
the  Japanese  people,  but  we  must  not  expect  that  it  will  con- 
tinue progressing  without  encountering  occasional  checks,  and 
there  are  not  a few  thoughtful  people  who  foresee  that  the 
Japanese  factories  will  soon  have  to  compete  very  seriously  with 
those  which  have  been  recently  erected  in  the  free  ports  of 
China.  In  this  respect  it  may  be  remarked  that  salaries  have 
risen  at  Shanghai,  as  well  as  at  Osaka  and  Tokio.  The  ac- 
quisition of  the  island  of  Formosa  will  probably  before  long 
enable  the  Japanese  to  cultivate  cotton  and  other  tropical 
produce  on  their  own  territory,  which  will,  of  course,  be  a 
great  gain  to  them. 


CHAPTER  VII 


THE  FINANCES  OF  JAPAN 

Flourishing  condition  of  Japanese  finance  on  the  eve  of  the  war  with  China 
— Present  Japanese  financial  problem  the  result  of  the  important 
military,  naval,  and  public  works  undertaken  by  the  Government  at 
the  close  of  the  war — Enormous  expense  of  this  programme,  demand- 
ing a loan  of  ;^24,ooo,ooo — Gradual  method  of  paying  off  this  debt  in 
nine  instalments — Impossibility  of  floating  the  loan  on  the  home 
market,  all  Japanese  capital  being  locked  up  in  the  various  newly- 
created  industries — Debts  incurred  in  connection  with  the  programme 
of  expansion,  whereby  the  ordinary  Budget  was  doubled — Progressive 
scale  of  taxation  from  the  present  date  until  1905 — Absolute  necessity 
of  augmenting  certain  taxes — Projected  imposition  of  increased  taxa- 
tion, especially  upon  land  and  on  beers,  wines,  and  spirits — Taxation 
as  compared  with  the  population  of  Japan  and  other  countries — 
Prospects  of  Japanese  finance. 

Before  the  war  with  China,  Japanese  finance  was  in  a most 
brilliant  condition,  and  the  fiscal  year  April  ist,  1893,  March 
31st,  1894,  the  close  of  which  preceded  hostilities  by  only  a few 
months  and  which  is  the  last  of  which  accurate  accounts  have 
been  published,  showed  a return  of  ^8,588,300  ordinary  and 
_;^3i5,9i3  extraordinary  revenue,  making  a total  of ^8,904,213, 
as  against  ^^8,458, 187  expenditure,  the  surplus  being  ;£'446, 026, 
which  on  a Budget  of  ;^io,4oo,ooo  was  a very  creditable  but  by 
no  means  an  exceptional  result.  As  a matter  of  fact,  there  had 
been  only  one  deficit,  that  of  1891-92,  resulting  from  the 
exceptional  expenses  incurred  by  the  nation  through  the 
disastrous  effects  of  the  earthquake  of  1891,  one  of  the  most 
terrible  on  record  even  in  Japan,  where  these  dreadful  visitations 
are  of  very  frequent  occurrence.  The  whole  financial  tendency 
of  the  preceding  years  is  summed  up  in  the  statement  that 
at  the  beginning  of  the  year  iSpfi-py  ;^3,9oo,ooo,  derived  from 
accumulated  surpluses,  was  at  the  disposal  of  the  Treasury, 

143 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


although  ;^2, 300,000  had  already  been  withdrawn  from  this 
reserve  fund  to  help  in  defraying  the  expenses  of  the  war. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  National  Debt  at  this  period  was 
not  higher  than  ;,^2  8,35o,ooo,  of  which  ;^i,57o,ooo  was  paper 
money  in  circulation.  It  had  therefore  diminished  since 
1890-91  by  ;^2, 300,000,  of  which  450,000  was  due  to  the 
withdrawal  of  the  paper  money.  These  notes  had  been  issued 
at  a period  when  the  new  regime  was  not  firmly  established, 
the  insurrection  at  Satsuma  still  to  be  suppressed,  and  the 
Government  unable  to  obtain  cash,  even  at  a very  high  rate 
of  interest.  In  1881  the  premium  upon  silver,  the  standard 
currency,  had  risen  to  70  per  cent.,  thanks  to  the  energy  of 
Count  Matsukata,  the  very  able  Minister  of  Finance.  It  fell 
to  9 per  cent,  by  1884;  in  1886  par  was  reached.  The  paper 
money  of  the  State  and  the  national  banks  was  gradually 
withdrawn  and  replaced  by  notes  of  the  Bank  of  Japan,  payable 
at  sight.  In  brief,  if  we  compare  the  figures  of  the  Debt  and 
the  Budget  with  those  of  the  population,  41,500,000,  we  can 
only  envy  the  financial  situation  of  Japan  on  the  eve  of  the  war. 

Although  the  expenses  of  the  Chino-Japanese  War,  which 
were  partly  covered  by  the  indemnity  obtained  from  China  and 
partly  by  a public  loan,  undoubtedly  checked  the  progressive 
prosperity  of  the  country,  they  had  nothing  whatever  to  do  with 
the  present  financial  problem,  which  has  been  created  by  the 
magnitude  of  the  military,  naval,  industrial,  and  commercial 
enterprises  undertaken  by  the  Japanese  Government  since  the 
close  of  the  war.  Between  1895  and  1896  the  Government 
decided  to  double  the  strength  of  the  army,  by  raising  the 
number  of  divisions  from  six  to  twelve  (exclusive  of  the  Imperial 
Guard),  and  it  will  now  thus  muster  150,000,  as  against  70,000 
to  75,000  on  a peace  footing,  and  500,000,  instead  of  from 
270,000  to  280,000,  in  time  of  war.  The  fleet  is  to  be  increased 
from  43  vessels  of  78,000  tons, //us  26  torpedo-boats,  without  a 
single  cruiser,  to  67  men-of-war,  of  which  7 are  first-class  battle- 
ships, with  a displacement  of  258,000  tons,  bes;ues  ii  torpedo- 
boat  destroyers  and  115  torpedo-boats.  The  creation  of 
numerous  arsenals  and  fortifications  will  eventually  complete  the 
programme,  but  beyond  these  War  Office  expenses,  very  con- 
siderable sums  have  been  spent  in  the  construction  of  railways, 
extension  of  telegraph-lines,  creation  of  new  ports,  subventions 
to  the  mercantile  marine,  and  in  the  establishment  of  a second 
University  at  Kioto.  The  plan  of  railway  extension  which 

144 


JAPAN 

was  decided  upon  in  1893  by  the  Diet  must  be  completed 
according  to  contract  in  1910.  The  other  measures  for  the 
augmentation  of  the  army  and  navy  were  included  in  the 
programme  of  the  Ito  Cabinet,  which  the  Chambers  accepted 
immediately  after  the  signing  of  peace.  This  extra  expenditure 
is  to  be  disbursed  in  ten  instalments  from  1896  to  1906,  and 
some  further  amendments  and  additions  were  made  during  the 
Parliamentary  Session  of  1896-97.  The  expenses  entailed  by 
these  extensive  schemes,  together  with  the  railways,  are  tabulated 
below : — 


Navy  and  arsenals  

£22,6^0,000 

Army  ...  ...  

8,220,000 

Fortifications  ...  ...  ... 

940,000 

Other  military  expenses  ...  ^ 

680,000 

Railway  construction  ...  ... 

7,980,000 

Increase  and  improvement  of  lines 

• •• 

2,650,000 

Telephones 

• •• 

1,280,000 

Construction  of  ports  ...  ... 

• »4 

790,000 

Defence  against  floods  ...  ...  .« 

1,970,000 

Subventions  to  banks  ... 

• •• 

2,060,000 

Creation  of  a tobacco  monopoly 

• •• 

820,000 

Subventions  to  various  industrie.s,  commerce, 
agriculture,  and  other  public  works 

1,460,000 

Total  ;^5 1,500,000 


Of  this  amount  ;^32,495,67o  was  for  War  Office  expenses, 
and  9,005,406  was  intended  for  the  very  extensive  com- 
mercial enterprises. 

In  1893  a loan  was  voted  to  be  issued  as  and  when  re- 
quired to  entirely  cover  the  expense  of  the  new  railway  lines. 
The  indemnity  was  ;^3o, 000,000,  plus  ;^4, 100,000  as  com- 
pensation for  the  retrocession  of  the  Liao-Tung  Peninsula, 
imposed  upon  Japan  by  the  Russian,  French,  and  German 
Governments.  This  latter  sum,  as  well  as  the  first  instalment, 
^7,500,000,  of  the  indemnity  was  duly  paid  into  the  Japanese 
Treasury  on  November  8,  1895  ; the  remainder  was  to  be 
paid  by  regular  instalments  on  May  8 of  each  year  until  1902. 
China,  however,  availed  herself  of  a clause  allowing  her  to 
pay  off  the  debt  at  once,  and  thus  escape  interest  charges, 
which  she  did  on  May  8,  1898.  Japanese  statesmen  had 
anticipated  this  act  of  the  Chinese  Government,  and  did 
not  count  upon  more  than  ;^34, 100,000.  Of  this  sum 
;^8, 000,000  had  been  debited  to  the  war  account,  leaving  a 
balance  of  ;^a6, 100,000.  In  addition  to  these  amounts,  the 

145  I* 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


Treasury  held  the  accumulated  surpluses,  which,  on  April  i, 
1896,  attained  ^2^3,900,000,  to  which  ^500,000  must  be  added 
as  the  surplus  in  the  Budget  of  1896-97.  The  difference 
between  the  total  of  these  receipts  and  the  anticipated  expenses 
was  to  be  balanced  by  a loan  known  as  ‘ the  loan  for  State 
enterprises.’  The  following  table  exhibits  the  assets  for  this 
programme  of  expansion  : 


Chinese  indemnity*  ...  ...  ... 

Surpluses  of  previous  Budgets...  ... 

Railway  loan,  ;^7,98o,ooo  ...  ... 

Loan  for  State  enterprises, ;^I3, 500, 000 


...  ;^26, 100,000 


4,400,000 

21,480,000 


Total  ;^’5 1,980,000 


The  expenses  being  ;^5 1,500,000,  there  would  thus  remain 
a surplus  of  nearly  ;^5oo,ooo,  thanks  to  the  favourable  result 
of  the  fiscal  year  1896-97. 

Apart  from  this  financial  scheme,  however,  there  was  still  a 
war  charge  which  had  not  been  foreseen.  It  had  at  first  been 
believed  that  the  island  of  Formosa  would  be  self-supporting, 
an  illusion  which  was  soon  dispelled,  and  the  Government  had 
therefore  to  grant  this  new  acquisition  for  a period  of  years  a 
subvention  from  the  Imperial  Treasury  of  about  ;;^6oo,ooo, 
to  obtain  which  various  receipts  officially  described  as  extra- 
ordinary, such  as  voluntary  contributions  and  restitutions,  sales 
of  State  lands,  and  interest  on  divers  funds  had  to  be  drawn 
upon.  These  receipts  generally  averaged  ^200,000,  and  by 
the  year  1905-6,  the  time  fixed  for  the  conclusion  of  the  expan- 
sion programme,  will  have  furnished  between  500,000  and 
;,^i, 800,000 ; for  the  remainder  it  will  be  necessary  to  have 
recourse  to  a loan,  and  supposing  that  during  this  period  the 
subvention  of  the  Japanese  Budget  to  Formosa,  which  must 
necessarily  diminish  year  by  year,  rises  to  about  ^,^4, 000, 000, 
another  loan  of  between  ;^2, 000,000  and  ;^2, 500,000  will 
have  to  be  raised.  Japan  would  therefore  have  to  borrow  about 
;i^24,ooo,ooo  from  1896  97  to  meet  the  extraordinary  expenses 
she  had  undertaken.  On  the  other  hand,  when  these  were  met, 


• The  Japanese  took  care  to  stipulate  that  the  indemnity  should  be  paid 
in  gold  at  the  exchange  of  the  tael  in  1895,  which  allowed  them  to  know 
exactly  on  what  amount  of  money  they  could  count,  which  was  of  extreme 
importance  to  them,  Japan  having  adopted  the  gold  standard,  and  the 
greater  part  of  the  indemnity  being  destined  to  be  spent  in  purchases  in 
Europe  and  the  United  States. 

146 


JAPAN 

her  ordinary  Budget  still  remained  greatly  augmented  by  the 
necessity  of  maintaining  an  army  and  navy  double  what  they 
were  before  the  war. 

This  being  the  case,  two  important  questions  presented 
themselves.  In  the  first  place,  was  it  possible  to  raise  without 
difficulty  a loan  of  ;^24, 000,000,  and  from  whence  was  it  to  be 
obtained?  In  the  second,  was  the  country  sufficiently  rich, 
once  the  scheme  was  executed,  to  maintain  this  increased 
expenditure,  and  by  what  means  would  it  be  able  to  obtain 
fresh  resources  to  pay  current  expenses  ? The  first  question 
contained  the  principal  difficulty.  Not  only  did  Japan  need 
to  borrow  ;^24,ooo,ooo,  but  she  had  to  borrow  most  of  this 
without  loss  of  time.  Naturally,  the  Administration  decided 
to  carry  out  with  the  least  possible  delay  the  essential 
parts  of  the  programme  already  determined  upon,  especially 
those  connected  with  the  national  defence,  and  the  Budgets 
of  1896,  1897,  and  1898  were  therefore  most  heavily  charged 
with  the  extraordinary  expenses.  The  extraordinary  Budget 
of  the  first  year  reached  0,300, 00c,  that  of  the  second 
;^i4,2oo,ooo,  that  of  the  third  ;j^6,ooo,ooo.  In  no  case, 
however,  could  the  surpluses  of  the  previous  Budgets  and 
the  part  already  paid  out  of  the  indemnity  (which  was 
;;^2o,6oo,ooo,  of  which  ^8,000,000  had  been  handed  over  to 
the  War  Office)  have  sufficed  to  provide  such  large  amounts. 
It  was  therefore  necessary  to  borrow  in  1896-97  ^1,830,000, 
in  1897-98  ;^6,88o,ooo,  while  in  1898-99  a further  issue  of 
;^4.5oo,ooo  had  to  be  made.  Now  the  grave  situation  which 
arose  was  this  ; the  issues  of  1896-97  were  readily  taken  up 
by  the  public,  but  in  1897-98  only  a third  of  the  sum  needed 
could  be  obtained,  because  the  conditions  of  the  market  were 
too  unfavourable  and  disposable  capital  was  lacking.  Whereas 
in  the  summer  of  1897  ^^4, 000, 000  of  a 5 per  cent.  Japanese 
loan  was  floated  on  the  London  market  at  par,  the  Government 
offered  the  Japanese  people  bonds  bearing  the  same  interest  at 
94,  but  they  were  not  placed  without  much  difficulty. 

All  the  capital  in  Japan  is  locked  up  either  in  previously 
contracted  State  loans  or  in  the  innumerable  commercial 
enterprises  which  have  sprung  up  in  the  country  during  the  past 
few  years.  When  we  remember  that  nine-tenths  of  the 
p^4o,ooo,ooo,  at  which  the  National  Debt  stood  after  the  war, 
is  in  Japanese  hands,  and  that  it  is  with  their  own  money 
that  they  have  constructed  railways  and  established  new  in- 

147  L 2 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


dustries,  there  is  no  ground  for  surprise  at  this  lack  of  ready 
capital.  In  view,  however,  of  the  evident  impossibility 
of  placing  a domestic  loan  for  the  sum  required,  two  alterna- 
tives remained  : a foreign  loan,  or  a reduction  to  more  modest 
proportion  of  the  programme  of  expansion. 

The  result  of  an  appeal  to  foreign  capitalists  would  no  doubt 
have  proved  successful  if  the  attractive  interest  of  from  5 to 
5J  per  cent,  had  been  offered.  Japan  offers  excellent  security. 
Her  finances  have  hitherto  been  admirably  managed,  and  her 
liabilities  do  not  appear  to  be  in  excess  of  the  capabilities  of 
her  people.  Nevertheless,  the  project  of  a foreign  loan  seems 
to  have  met  with  serious  opposition  from  many  eminent 
people  in  Japan,  which  arose  from  a twofold  cause:  first,  fear 
of  compromising  the  independence  of  the  country  by  supplying 
foreigners  with  a pretext  for  interfering  in  the  internal  affairs  of 
the  Empire,  in  case  there  was  any  difficulty  in  fulfilling  obliga- 
tions ; and,  secondly,  the  national  pride,  which  regarded  it  as 
humiliating  for  Japan  to  become  indebted  to  Europe.  This 
latter  motive  was  doubtless  the  most  powerful,  but  it  rested 
upon  an  altogether  exaggerated  notion  of  national  dignity. 
What  all  the  great  Powers  of  the  world,  except,  perhaps, 
France  and  England,  have  done,  Japan  might  do  without 
sacrificing  her  dignity.  The  Japanese  Government,  after  long 
hesitation,  in  which  it  perhaps  missed  the  most  favourable 
opportunity,  decided  in  June,  1899,  to  issue  a 4 per  cent,  loan 
on  the  London  market  at  the  rate  of  90  francs.  The  high  rate 
of  issue  did  not  greatly  tempt  the  public,  but  that  part  of  the 
loan  not  then  subscribed  will  be  gradually  issued  and  advanced 
by  the  banks  which  undertook  the  issue,  and  thus  the  Japanese 
Treasury  will  find  itself  in  possession  of  sufficient  funds  to 
proceed  with  its  programme  until  money  is  more  plentiful  at 
home.  In  the  meantime,  so  far  as  concerns  the  honourable 
intentions  of  the  Japanese  to  fulfil  their  obligations,  we  may 
rely  with  safety  upon  their  natural  high  sense  of  honour,  and 
rest  assured  that  they  will  do  everything  in  their  power  to  meet 
their  obligations.  Moreover,  the  resources  of  Japan,  which  I 
will  briefly  analyze,  appear  sufficient  to  enable  the  country  to 
meet  without  much  difficulty  the  interest  on  the  loans  as  well 
as  the  permanent  expenditure  resulting  from  its  greater  national 
importance 

Let  us,  to  begin  with,  review  the  principal  items  in  the 
revenue  as  tabulated  in  the  Budget  of  1897-98  ; 

uS 


JAPAN 


Land  tax  ... 

••• 

• •• 

,^3,870,000 

Income  tax 

190,000 

Tax  on  drinks  ... 

• *« 

2,0QO,OOO 

„ tobacco  ... 

• •• 

310,000 

Registration 

• •• 

• •• 

**« 

750,000 

Tax  on  sales,  contracts. 

etc. 

• •• 

*»• 

590,000 

Customs  ... 

*»• 

660,000 

Various  duties 

• •• 

»•« 

• •• 

490,000 

Posts  and  telegraph 

• •• 

• •• 

• •• 

• •• 

1,210,000 

Profits  of  the  State  railways 

• •• 

• •• 

540,000 

Crown  land  products 

... 

... 

290,000 

Other  items 

• •• 

250,000 

Receipts  from  Formosa 

... 

— 

... 

810,000 

Total 

... 

;^i2,95o,ooo 

This  Budget  is  higher  by  one-half  than  that  of  1893-94,  the 
total  of  which  we  have  already  given,  and  whose  ordinary 
receipts  did  not  quite  reach  8,600,000.  This  increase  results 
from  four  causes  : (i)  better  returns  from  the  public  services — 
railways  and  posts;  (2)  a slight  increase  in  the  revenue  from 
taxes  whose  rate  has  not  changed,  and  also  in  the  Crown  lands ; 
(3)  the  establishment  of  two  new  taxes  on  registrations  and  sales, 
contracts,  and  other  commercial  deeds,  the  aggregate  value  01 
which  increased  the  revenue  by  about  ;^i, 200,000;  (4)  the 
reorganization  of  the  tax  on  drink,  increased  by  ;^i, 150,000, 
and  of  that  on  tobacco,  in  consequence  of  this  product  having 
been  converted  into  a monopoly,  the  effects,  however,  of  which 
were  not  felt  in  1897  98,  for  it  only  came  into  force  in  January, 
1 898.  To  these  we  must  add  the  receipts  from  Formosa,  which, 
unfortunately,  are  not  net  receipts.  The  total  revenue  for  the 
fiscal  year  1897-98  was  2,950,000,  and  exceeded  ordinary 
expenses  by  j£6oo,ooo  ; but  these  figures  will  undoubtedly  be 
greatly  augmented  when  the  programme  of  expansion  is  com- 
pleted. It  is  calculated  that  by  the  year  1904-5  the  ordinary 
expenses  will  stand  as  high  as  7,300,000,  in  order  to  meet 
which  it  will  be  necessary  to  raise  another  ;^4,4oo,ooo  by 
increased  taxation. 

Taxation  in  Japan  has  a natural  tendency  to  increase. 
During  the  years  1887-94  the  annual  rise  was  between  and 
ij  per  cent,  at  a time,  when  it  was  not  affected  by  any  un- 
usual excitement.  This  was  before  the  war.  Assuming  that 
it  only  advances  at  the  rate  of  f per  cent.,  it  is  expected  that 
by  the  year  1904-5  the  increase  will  add  ^^500,000  to  the 
;^9,8oo,ooo  of  1897-98.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Customs 

149 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


tariff,  which  was  kept  exceedingly  low  by  the  treaties  with 
foreign  Powers,  has  risen  in  consequence  of  the  revision  of 
these  treaties,  and,  it  is  hoped,  will  produce  an  increase  of 
600,000.  The  tobacco  monopoly  will  also,  it  is  anticipated, 
produce  ;^8oo,ooo  per  annum,  an  absolute  increase  of 
;^5oo,ooo  on  the  existing  returns.  There  remains,  therefore, 
;z^2,8oo,ooo  to  find,  which  will  doubtlessly  be  obtained  from 
the  increased  receipts  of  the  posts,  telegraph,  and  tele- 
phones, and  by  the  extension  of  the  State  railways  now  in 
existence,  and  the  exploitation  of  those  in  process  of  construc- 
tion. 

The  recent  excessive  activity  in  commercial  circles  has 
suffered  a check  of  late,  a halt  not  very  surprising  after 
such  a forced  march.  In  the  meantime,  there  is  some  risk 
that  the  returns  of  the  posts  and  railways  may  not  increase 
as  rapidly  as  the  more  sanguine  anticipate,  for  the  new  rail- 
ways are  not  likely  to  prove  as  profitable  as  those  already  in 
existence,  which  pass  through  richer  regions.  During  the 
interval  1892-96  the  net  railway  returns  to  the  State,  without 
including  any  remarkable  increase  in  the  lengths  of  their  lines, 
was  doubled.  By  the  year  1904  it  is  calculated  that  there  will 
be  1,250  miles  of  rail  instead  of  the  600  in  1897,  which  it  is 
estimated  will  yield  an  increase  of  ^^550, 000  upon  the  present 
returns.  As  to  the  posts,  telegraph,  and  telephones,  whose  rough 
receipts  were  augmented  by  about  80  per  cent,  during  the  last 
four  years,  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  they  will  in 
1904-5  be  _;;^85o,ooo  above  what  they  are  at  present.  Thus  we 
have  ;Ji, 400,000  added  to  the  necessary  ;£'2, 800,000.  The  re- 
maining p^i,4oo,ooo  will  have  to  be  taken  from  various  other 
sources  of  taxation.  The  question  now  arises : Will  the  country 
stand  further  taxation  without  protest  ? The  answer  seems  to 
me  reassuring.  The  land  tax  before  the  Restoration  and  even 
to  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century,  as  can  be  verified  by 
reference  to  many  important  historical  documents,  was  seven 
times  more  burdensome  than  it  is  at  present,  and  was  paid  in 
kind — in  rice,  or  other  kindred  products — and  yielded  to  the 
daimios  and  the  Central  Government  147,000,000  bushels  of 
rice  per  annum.  At  the  price  fetched  by  rice  in  1897,  when 
the  harvest  returned  a fair  average,  the  land  tax  should  now 
represent  about  a sixth  of  this  amount,  and  the  total 
Budget  of  .5^17,300,000  anticipated  for  the  year  1894-95  only 
claimed  93,100,000  bushels.  If  we  add  to  these  all  the 

150 


JAPAN 


provincial  and  communal  Budgets,  we  find  not  more  than 
127,400,000  bushels  of  rice.  It  is  therefore  untrue  that  the 
Japanese  are  not  better  off  to-day  than  they  were  under  the  old 
regime.  Since  the  introduction  of  the  present  financial  con- 
ditions and  the  abolition  of  the  feudal  system,  prices  have  in- 
creased enormously.  From  1887  to  1897,  according  to  the 
Monthly  Returns  published  by  the  Bank  of  Japan,  on  the  returns 
of  about  forty  principal  products  of  the  Empire,  we  find  that 
they  have  increased  in  value  by  no  less  than  73  per  cent. 
Salaries  have  augmented  even  to  a greater  extent,  and  the  popu- 
lation has  risen  4,000,000,  so  that  an  addition  of  45  per  cent, 
upon  the  taxes  leaves  the  taxpayer  less  heavily  burdened  than 
before.  The  most  important  of  all  these  taxes  may  strike  us 
as  distinctly  heavy,  but  we  must  not  forget  that  in  former  times 
it  was  the  only  form  of  taxation.  In  those  good  old  days  nine- 
tenths  of  the  population  lived  in  the  country,  which  was  divided 
up  among  the  daimios,  the  peasantry  being  their  tenants  ; but  at 
the  abolition  of  the  feudal  system  the  peasants,  under  the  new 
law,  became  proprietors,  without  having  to  pay  a fraction  either 
to  their  former  masters  or  to  the  Government. 

In  1896  the  agricultural  produce  of  Japan  was  valued  at 
;^62, 600,000,  exclusive  of  the  produce  of  the  fens,  which, 
however,  is  very  important.  The  land  taxes,  therefore,  at 
;^3,8oo,ooo  are  only  5 6 per  cent.,  and  the  local  land  tax  2‘8 
per  cent  of  this  total.  All  this  is  not  excessive. 

Finally,  the  land  tax  includes  ;^352,5oo  derived  from  the  tax 
on  urban  building  land,  which  pays  12s.  per  acre,  only  four 
times  as  much  as  the  rice-fields,  and  should  easily  return  from 
j^2oo,ooo  to  _;^30o,ooo  more.  As  regards  the  total  of  the 
land  tax,  it  was  decreased  by  one-sixth  in  1877  ; an  equivalent 
increase  would  bring  in  a return  of  about  ^600,000  more,  and 
this  could  be  effected  without  much  inconvenience,  owing  to 
the  general  increase  in  the  value  of  property.  The  tax  on  sa^e, 
the  principal  drink  of  the  country,  was  raised  in  1897  about 
one-half.  It  would  bear  augmentation,  as  at  present  it  pays 
5d.  per  gallon  on  a drink  which  is  worth  is.  3d.  a gallon.  In 
general,  the  Japanese  financiers  prefer  to  raise  existing  taxes 
rather  than  establish  new  ones.  If  we  study  the  question 
from  another  point  of  view,  and  examine  how  best  to  in- 
crease Japanese  taxes,  let  us  consider  the  Budget  as  it  will  be 
five  years  hence,  after  the  necessary  taxes  already  mentioned 
have  been  added  to  it.  Of  the  17,300,000  of  the  Revenue, 

151 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


;j^3, 400,000  will  be  derived  from  Crown  lands,  railways,  and 
posts,  ^850,000  from  Formosa,  and  ;^i3, 000,000  from  mono- 
polies and  taxes  paid  by  Japan  proper.  The  population, 
increasing  as  it  does  at  the  rate  of  350,000  to  400,000  souls 
a year,  will  have  reached  45.500,000,  contributing  to  the 
State  at  the  rate  of  13,000,000,  or  about  5s.  gd.  per  head, 
which  does  not  seem  to  us  excessive  when  compared  with 
what  is  paid  by  people  of  other  countries.  A Frenchman,  for 
instance,  pays  an  Italian  i 12s.,  a Russian  12s.  9d.,  an 
Egyptian  i6s.  gd.,  and  a Hindu  3s.  gd.  I have  not  selected 
these  nationalities  haphazard,  but  because  each  of  them  has 
some  special  characteristic  in  common  with  Japan,  especially 
Egypt,  essentially  an  agricultural  country.  I do  not  thinx  that 
anybody  can  maintain  that  an  Italian,  as  a rule,  is  five  or  six 
times  richer  than  a Japanese,  or  an  Egyptian  three  times,  or 
that  the  130,000,000  of  Russians,  20,000,000  of  whom  are 
Asiatics,  possess  incomes  double  the  average  to  be  found  in 
Japan,  and  there  is  no  doubt  an  immense  inverse  difference 
between  a Hindu  and  a Japanese.  Bearing  in  mind  these 
facts,  one  must  certainly  conclude  that  the  amount  which  the 
Jap  will  pay  to  his  Treasury  is  considerably  lighter  than  that 
obtained  from  almost  every  people  in  the  Old  World.  With 
regard  to  the  National  Debt,  five-sixths  of  which  is  held 
by  natives,  at  the  present  moment  it  does  not  exceed 
_p^4o,ooo.ooo,  but  it  will  reach  its  maximum  in  1901,  when  it 
will  stand  at  ;i^49, 930, 000.  The  annual  repayment  stands  at 
present  at  ^^720,000,  but  will  increase  to  ^£^1,000,000  in  1903, 
and  go  on  augmenting,  so  that  by  1938,  unless  fresh  obligations 
are  incurred  beyond  those  already  in  view,  Japan  will  be  free 
of  debt. 

The  financial  difficulties  confronting  Japan  at  the  present 
moment  are  therefore  not  so  formidable  as  they  appear.  In 
1899  the  Chamber  increased  the  land  tax,  which  it  had  pre- 
viously very  persistently  refused  to  do.  At  the  same  time  it 
raised  the  tax  on  sa/^e  and  on  the  posts.  The  Budget  of  ordi- 
nary receipts  was  therefore  advanced  to  ;^i9,ooo,ooo.  This 
figure  may  appear  excessive,  but  it  shows  a surplus  of 
;^4,ooo,ooo  on  the  actual  expenses,  a fact  which  indicates  the 
intention  of  the  Government  to  pay  off  as  soon  as  possible  the 
extraordinary  expenses  of  the  Ito  programme,  which  means 
that  these  increased  taxations  are  to  be  considered  merely  as 
temporary.  They  may  possibly  impede  commerce  at  first,  a 


JAPAN 

thing  which,  unfortunately,  cannot  be  helped,  but,  at  any  rate, 
the  future  will  be  considerably  benefited  thereby.  The  finances 
of  Japan  have,  happily,  always  been  managed  in  a highly  satis- 
factory and  prudent  manner,  and  if  the  Empire  carries  out  the 
present  plan  of  expansion,  and  does  not  embark  on  any  fresh 
schemes  involving  further  outlay,  Japan  seems  to  have  found 
a clear  way  out  of  the  transient  difficulties  which  at  one  time 
weighed  upon  her  finances. 


153 


CHAPTER  VIII 


THE  DOMESTIC  POLITICS  AND  PARLIAMENT  OF  JAPAN 

Present  social  organization — The  nobles,  or  kwazoku ; the  shizoku,  or 
ancient  samurai  ; and  the  heimin — Equal  civil  rights  for  all  citizens — 
Preponderance  of  the  samurai  in  politics  since  the  Restoration  — 
Survival  of  the  clan  spirit — ^Japan  governed  during  the  past  thirty 
years  by  the  Choshiu  and  Satsuma  clans — Creation  in  1889  of  a Con- 
stitution modelled  on  that  of  Prussia — Parliamentary  struggles  against 
Cabinets  governed  by  Southern  clans — Frequent  crises  and  dissolutions 
— A Ministerial  crisis  in  Japan — Efforts  of  the  Chamber  to  impose 
Ministerial  responsibility  and  to  replace  the  Government  of  clans  by 
that  of  parties — Signs  of  improvement  in  the  working  of  the  repre- 
sentative system — Its  prospects  in  Japan. 

We  have  now  to  study  the  least  praiseworthy  of  the  many 
institutions  borrowed  from  Europe  by  modern  Japan,  that 
relating  to  the  home  politics  of  the  country,  which  are  very 
unsettled.  Since  1889,  when  the  Mikado,  in  fulfilment  of  the 
promise  made  to  his  people  at  the  Restoration,  first  granted  a 
Constitution  analogous  to  that  of  Prussia,  the  Chambers  have 
been  dissolved  not  less  than  five  times.  A constant  anta- 
gonism has  existed  between  the  representatives  of  the  people 
and  the  various  Cabinets  which  have  succeeded  each  other ; 
and  if  we  except  the  time  of  the  Chinese  War,  when  the 
patriotism  of  the  Japanese  was  so  intense  as  to  absorb  even 
party  feeling,  we  shall  find  that  no  Cabinet  has  been  able  to 
dispose  of  an  important  majority.  In  order  to  understand  this 
state  of  affairs,  we  must  recall  the  manner  in  which  the  Restora- 
tion took  place,  bearing  in  mind  the  actual  social  organization 
of  Japan,  and  also  the  fact  that  the  clan  instinct  has  survived 
both  class  prejudice  and  feudal  privileges,  which  were  sup- 
pressed without  the  least  opposition  or  regret. 

Twenty-five  years  have  now  elapsed  since  the  abolition  of 
the  old  regime,  and  in  the  meantime  the  feudal  system  has  been 

154 


JAPAN 


replaced,  primarily  by  a centralized  and  absolute  monarchy,  and 
now  by  Parliamentary  representation  modelled  on  the  European 
plan.  The  eighty  odd  historical  provinces  have  become  forty- 
five  departments,  each  administered  by  a Prefect.  The  people 
are,  however,  still  divided  into  three  distinct  classes  : the 
aristocracy,  or  kwazoku,  formed  of  a fusion  of  the  ancient 
daimios  with  the  kuges,  or  Court  nobles,  and  of  the  shin- 
kwazoku,  or  newly  ennobled  persons  (in  all  644  families,  con- 
sisting of  about  4,162  persons);  the  shizoku,  or  ancient 
samurai  (numbering  432,458  families,  or  2,049,144  persons); 
and  finally  the  heimin,  or  commoners  ; but  apart  from  the 
predominance  of  the  nobility  in  the  composition  of  the  Chamber 
of  Peers*  no  privileges  have  been  granted  either  to  them  or  to 
the  shizoku:  their  duties  are  exactly  the  same  as  those  of 
any  other  members.  From  the  social  point  of  view  we  shall, 
however,  very  soon  find  that  far  less  exclusiveness  exists  in  this 
country,  where  feudalism  was  in  full  force  only  so  recently  as 
thirty  years  ago,  than  we  should  in  many  in  Europe,  where  its 
abolition  dates  back  in  some  instances  several  centuries.  A 
Japanese  gentleman  recently  said  to  me  : ‘ In  Japan  we  never 
dream  of  asking  a person  the  first  time  we  see  him  to  what 
class  he  belongs.’  I dare  say  some  time-honoured  privileges 
still  linger  in  their  inner  circle,  and  that  a few  old-fashioned 
noblemen  do  consider  themselves  superior  to  the  heimin,  but 
they  take  great  care  not  to  display  any  such  feeling.  One 
meets  members  of  the  Japanese  aristocracy  in  every  public 
resort  and  place  of  amusement,  and  they  mingle  without  the 
least  hesitation  with  the  rest  of  the  public.  I remember  one 
day  at  Tokio  being  present  at  a wrestling  match,  a very 
favourite  sport  with  the  Japanese.  Someone  pointed  out  to 

me  Prince  K , the  President  of  the  House  of  Peers,  seated 

among  the  crowd  on  one  of  the  steps  of  the  ring.  The 
Marquis  H— — , the  descendent  of  a great  family  of  daimios, 
was  also  present,  as  well  as  the  Marquis  Tokukawa,  who  is  an 
ardent  admirer  of  the  sport  and  belongs  to  the  family  of  the 
Shoguns,  to  have  merely  looked  upon  a member  of  which  a 
generation  or  so  back  would  have  cost  a man  of  the  people  his 
life.  These  gentlemen  appeared  to  thoroughly  enjoy  the 

* Many  of  the  daimios,  whose  personal  property  was  very  small,  are  now 
extremely  poor.  The  largest  fortunes  in  Japan  are  those  of  the  merchants 
and  bankers,  who  under  the  old  regime  used  to  hide  their  wealth  to  avoid 
taxation. 


15s 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


entertainment,  and  evidently  thought  very  little  or  nothing  at 
all  of  their  former  exclusiveness. 

Although  the  highest  positions  in  the  Government  are  open 
to  all,  they  have  hitherto  always  remained  in  the  hands  of  the 
samurai.  Just  as  immediately  after  the  Restoration,  so  to- 
day the  country  is  governed  by  members  of  this  very  numer- 
ous and  intelligent  gentry.  All  the  successive  Ministers,  the 
majority  of  whom  have  been  ennobled,  even  made  kwazoku, 
have  sprung  from  its  ranks.  The  same  may  be  said  of  all 
the  high  officials,  and,  with  very  few  exceptions,  of  the  majority 
of  the  smaller  employes  of  the  Government,  even  down  to 
the  very  police  agents  and  the  vast  majority  of  the  military 
and  naval  officers.  This  is  not  surprising  when  we  remember 
that  the  samurai  constituted  before  the  Restoration  not  only 
the  military,  but  also  the  student  and  literary  class.  Even 
now  the  greater  number  of  the  students  at  the  University  are 
recruited  from  among  them,  and  as  a proof  that  a sort  of 
special  respect  is  still  entertained  for  them,  they  form  the 
majority  of  the  members  of  the  Lower  House,  although  they 
only  possess  one-twentieth  of  the  voting  power  of  the  country. 
The  mass  of  the  Japanese  people  may  be  described  as  caring 
very  little  about  public  affairs ; and  it  is,  after  all,  perhaps  as 
well  that  the  political  and  administrative  affairs  of  such  a new 
country  should  be  in  the  hands  of  a distinct  and  cultured 
class.  This  is,  however,  merely  a transitory  state  of  affairs,  not  a 
privilege.  It  is  already  observed  that  the  proportion  of  the 
heinmi  in  all  public  offices,  even  in  the  army,  tends  to  increase 
rapidly. 

The  only  marked  feature  of  the  former  regime  which  still 
survives  the  many  social  changes  that  have  recently  taken  place 
in  Japan  is  the  clan  spirit,  which  is  as  strong  to-day  as  ever. 
The  bond  which  united  the  followers  of  a former  feudal  prince 
among  themselves  still  subsists,  although  the  prince  himself 
may  have  fallen  almost  to  the  level  of  his  clansmen.  The 
men  who  have  up  to  the  present  governed  modern  Japan 
have  always  belonged  to  southern  clans,  especially  to  those  of 
Choshiu  and  Satsuma ; the  two  others,  Hizen  and  Tosa,  are 
less  united,  and  although  certain  imitortant  political  person- 
ages are  of  their  number,  they  have  had  to  fight  their  way 
to  the  front  rather  by  dint  of  hard  work  than  through  any 
clan  influence.  The  influential  combination  formed  by  the 
first-named  clans,  and  unitedly  known  as  the  Sat-Cho,  holds  in 

156 


JAPAN 

its  hands  the  reins  of  administration,  rules  the  army,  and  makes 
its  influence  felt  even  more  strongly  in  the  navy.  Their  politics, 
however,  are  not  quite  identical.  Those  of  the  Satsuma,  for 
instance,  are  usually  believed  to  be  rather  more  conservative 
and  authoritative  than  otherwise,  and  it  is  from  its  ranks  that 
are  recruited  the  majority  of  the  military  party.  The  men  of 
the  Choshiu,  on  the  other  hand,  are  more  progressive  and  more 
subtle,  but  they  are  also  accused  of  being  too  fond  of  money. 
The  chiefs  of  these  clans  appear  to  understand  each  other 
sufficiently  well  to  establish  a sort  of  balance  of  power  between 
themselves,  occasionally  collaborating  in  a Cabinet,  at  other 
times  succeeding  each  other  as  distinct  Ministries.  In  the 
rank  and  file  there  is  considerable  rivalry,  positions  and 
honours  being  more  liberally  distributed  among  the  followers 
of  those  in  power.  During  the  earlier  part  of  my  visit  to  Japan, 
under  the  last  Premier,  Count  Matsukata,  the  Satsuma  clan 
was  in  the  ascendant,  and  to  give  some  idea  of  its  influence 
all  I need  say  is  that  the  Minister  of  Finance,  the  President 
of  the  Council,  the  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  the  Home 
Minister,  and  the  Minister  of  War  and  Marine — in  short,  the 
five  most  important  Ministers  out  of  eight — were  of  their 
number,  and  a sixth  was  a prominent  member  of  the  Choshiu, 
their  allied  clan.  Now  the  provinces  of  Yamaguchi  and  Kago- 
shima, which  are  the  home  of  these  two  clans,  contain  only 
one  out  of  the  forty-two  million  inhabitants  of  the  entire 
Empire.  It  is  therefore  not  surprising  that  people  in  other 
parts  of  the  country  should  complain  of  having  so  small  a share 
in  the  Government.  Imagine  France  ruled  exclusively  for 
thirty  years  by  Provengaux  ! It  would  only  be  natural  that  such 
a state  of  affairs  should  lead  to  great  dissatisfaction  throughout 
the  Republic. 

So  long  as  Japan  remained  an  absolute  monarchy,  in  which 
the  Legislature  was  concentrated  within  a narrow  circle,  the 
Choshiu  and  Satsuma  Ministries  succeeded  each  other  without 
any  noisy  opposition  ; but  when  in  1890  Parliamentary 
Government  was  established,  an  immediate  collision  occurred 
between  the  Lower  Chamber,  which  is  composed  of  repre- 
sentatives from  all  parts  of  the  country,*  and  the  Cabinet, 

* The  Japanese  Parliament  is  composed  of  two  Chambers — the  House 
of  Lords,  or  Peers,  to  which  belong  (i)  the  Princes  of  the  Blood  (13)  ; 
(2)  all  the  Princes  and  Marquises  (40) ; (3)  such  representatives  as  are 
elected  for  seven  years  by  the  Counts,  Viscounts,  and  Barons  (123)  ; 

157 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


dominated  by  the  Sat-Cho  combination.  Although  according 
to  the  Constitution,  analogous  to  that  of  Prussia,  the  Ministers 
are  not  responsible  to  the  Chambers,  but  to  the  Emperor  alone, 
and  although  the  Budget  of  the  current  year,  if  the  finance 
bill  is  not  voted  in  due  time,  becomes  by  law  that  of  the  fol- 
lowing year  also,  the  irreconcilable  opposition  which  manifested 
itself  from  the  beginning  greatly  embarrassed  the  first  Matsukata 
Ministry  in  1891  and  1892,  and  the  Ito  Ministry  which  suc- 
ceeded it.  This  latter,  whose  plans  for  the  extension  of  the 
Navy  were  obstinately  rejected  by  the  Chamber,  twice  dissolved 
it : in  December,  1893,  and  again  in  May,  1894.  After  the  war 
patriotic  feeling  ran  so  high  that  people  cared  very  little  about 
the  Government  and  its  measures,  and  projected  laws  were 
adopted  without  the  least  opposition  ; but  when  affairs  began 
to  settle  down  it  was  otherwise.  In  1897  and  1898  there  were 
two  dissolutions,  and  in  the  latter  year  the  Ministry  in  power 
was  the  ninth  since  December,  1885,  and  the  seventh  since  the 
establishment  of  the  Parliamentary  system.  This  gives  an 
average  of  about  two  years  for  each  Cabinet,  and  even  less 
for  the  Chamber,  of  which  not  one  has  yet  attained  its  legal 
term. 

The  reason  for  this  persistent  conflict  is  due  in  the  first  place 
to  the  popular  assembly  being  hostile  to  the  Government  of 
the  clansmen,  and  in  the  second  because  it  is  displeased  that 
the  Ministers  are  not  responsible  to  it.  Whilst  professing  the 
greatest  respect  for  the  Emperor,  the  Chamber  considers  that 
the  Government  should  possess  a Parliamentary  majority  in 


(4)  members  who  are  nominated  for  life  by  the  Emperor  (too) ; {5)  members 
elected,  one  for  each  department,  and  selected  from  among  the  fifteen  more 
important  personages  of  the  department  over  thirty  years  of  age  (45).  The 
Chamber  of  Deputies  is  composea  of  300  members,  one  for  every  128,000 
inhabitants,  and  is  elected  by  all  Japanese  subjects  over  twenty-five  years 
of  age  who  have  resided  in  an  electoral  district  for  a term  of  twelve  months, 
and  who  pay  30s.  direct  taxes.  To  be  elected,  the  candidate  must  be  over 
thirty  years  of  age  and  fulfil  the  same  conditions  as  above.  The  heads  of 
noble  families  can  neither  be  electors  nor  elected  to  the  Lower  Chamber. 
In  1895  there  were  467,887  voters  (ii  per  1,000  inhabitants),  and  in  all 
517,130  persons  (12  per  i,ooo),  paying  more  than  30s.  direct  taxes. 
Among  the  first  class  there  were  21,070,  and  among  the  second  class  25,405 
shizoku,  or  ancient  samurai,  from  which  fact  we  may  take  it  for  granted 
that  there  are  fewer  rich  men  among  the  ancient  samurai  than  among  the 
rest  of  the  population.  As  to  the  nobles,  so-called  kwazoku,  at  least  a third 
of  the  heads  of  noble  families  pay  less  than  30s.  The  proportion  of  shizoku 
among  those  having  the  right  of  vote  is  less  than  5 per  cent. 

158 


JAPAN 


order  to  retain  power.  It,  moreover,  complains  of  a certain 
lack  of  respect,  Ministers  rarely  troubling  to  appear  before 
it,  and  that  it  is  seldom,  if  ever,  addressed  by  any  but  high 
functionaries,  appointed  Government  Commissioners  for 
matters  within  their  several  departments.  In  a word,  there 
exists  considerable  friction  in  the  popular  assembly  against 
this  state  of  affairs,  which  reduces  it  to  the  position  of  a mere 
debating  society. 

Now,  all  successive  Cabinets  have  resolutely  refused  to 
consider  the  Lower  Chamber  in  any  other  light,  which  gave 
rise  to  some  curious  incidents  during  the  Ministerial  and 
Parliamentary  crisis  of  December,  1897,  and  January,  1898, 
which  I had  the  good  fortune  to  witness.  The  Cabinet,  per- 
suaded that  the  majority  was  hostile  to  it,  determined  to  avoid 
even  the  semblance  of  dependence  upon  the  Chamber,  and 
therefore  did  not  wait  for  the  passing  of  a vote  of  censure, 
but  dissolved  the  Chamber  and  offered  their  own  resignation 
to  the  Emperor,  to  whom  alone  they  considered  themselves 
responsible. 

Consequently,  on  December  24th  the  Emperor,  accord- 
ing to  custom,  came  in  person  to  read  the  Speech  from  the 
Throne  to  the  two  united  Chambers,  who  forthwith  voted 
the  usual  answer.  These  two  documents  were  very  short,  and 
the  second,  containing  merely  protestations  of  respect  and 
loyalty,  was  unanimously  adopted.  On  the  morrow,  scarcely 
had  the  order  of  the  day  been  read  and  certain  financial 
projects  of  the  Government  presented,  than  the  doyen  of  the 
Chamber,  Mr.  Suzuki,  asked  leave  to  speak,  and  proposed  the 
amendment,  so  as  to  enable  the  House  to  discuss  a vote  of 
censure.  This  amendment,  which  did  not  come  as  a surprise, 
being  unanimously  passed,  the  same  gentleman  returned  imme- 
diately to  the  tribune  and  read  out  the  following  resolution, 

‘ That  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  declares  it  has  no  confidence 
in  the  present  Ministry,’  whereupon  somebody  presented  a 
folded  paper  to  the  President,  who  silenced  the  speaker  by 
announcing  that  he  had  just  received  an  Imperial  rescript,  the 
tenor  of  which  he  informed  the  Chamber  was  as  follows : 
‘In  virtue  of  Article  3 of  the  Imperial  Constitution,  We  hereby 
ordain  that  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  be  dissolved  forth- 
with.’ The  House  rose,  having  met  for  only  seven  minutes, 
and  simultaneously  the  Upper  House  was  prorogued.  Two 
days  later,  on  the  27th,  the  Emperor  received  the  resignation 

159 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


of  Count  Matsukata  and  his  colleagues.  On  the  evening  of 
the  same  day  the  Marquis  I to,  who  had  already  twice  been 
Premier,  in  1886  88  and  in  1892-96,  and  who  is  certainly  the 
best  known  living  Japanese  statesman,  was  summoned  to  the 
palace.  At  first  he  hesitated  about  accepting  the  leadership 
of  the  Government  under  such  very  difficult  circumstances, 
especially  with  respect  to  foreign  affairs,  Japan  being  at  that 
time  at  the  acute  stage  of  her  Chinese  question,  while  home 
matters  were  embarrassed  by  several  economical  and  financial 
obstructions  of  a very  serious  character,  but  nevertheless,  the 
Marquis  finally  accepted.  After  ten  days’  fruitless  negotia- 
tions, he  was  obliged  to  give  up  his  difficult  task ; but  he  was 
able,  however,  by  the  12th  of  January  to  compose  another 
Cabinet  containing  some  excellent  names,  but  it  was  a clan 
Ministry,  including  four  Choshius  and  two  Satsumas.  In  June 
he  was  obliged  to  dissolve  Parliament,  and  the  Ito  Cabinet 
had  to  give  way  to  another,  formed  under  the  Presidency 
of  Count  Okuma,  a statesman  of  very  progressive  views,  which 
may  be  described  as  the  only  genuine  Parliamentary  Cabinet 
Japan  has  yet  known.  The  new  Cabinet  was  not  composed 
from  a single  party,  but  by  a coalition  of  the  two  already 
existing,  and  leagued  against  the  clans.  It  lasted  but  a short 
time,  and  towards  the  end  of  1898  the  Satsuma  and  Choshiu 
parties  returned  to  office  under  the  Premiership  of  Marshal 
Yamagata. 

As  in  the  case  of  the  clans,  the  parties  are  formed  of 
groups  of  persons  and  interests.  They  have  no  defined  pro- 
grammes, but  are  constantly  changing  their  views,  and  are  mere 
cliques  surrounding  one  or  two  influential  politicians  who 
aspire  to  replace  the  clan  in  office  merely  for  the  sake  of  the 
advantages  to  be  obtained,  and  to  be  able  to  distribute  posts 
among  their  relatives  and  friends.  In  the  Parliament  which 
was  dissolved  in  1897  by  Count  Matsukata  the  most  im- 
portant of  these  groups  was  that  of  the  ‘ Progressives,’  in- 
cluding some  90  to  95  members  out  of  300 ; then  came  the 
‘Liberals,’  with  about  80  adherents;  then  the  ‘National 
Unionists,’  25  to  30 ; and,  lastly,  some  twenty  other  sub- 
divisions, besides  the  ‘ Independents.’  The  Progressives  are 
more  consistent,  possibly  because  they  have  only  been  in  exist- 
ence since  1896.  The  Liberals,  although  the  oldest  group,  have 
almost  completely  lost  their  influence  and  cohesion  during  the 
last  two  or  three  years. 


JAPAN 


If  you  question  a Japanese  about  the  programmes  of  these 
different  parties  he  will  give  very  vague  answers,  and,  for 
the  matter  of  that,  they  are  hardly  distinguishable  one  from 
another.  The  demands  presented  by  the  Progressives  to  Count 
Matsukata  in  the  autumn  of  1897  were  formulated  in  the 
vaguest  terms,  and  confined  to  generalities,  such  as  reforms  in 
the  administration,  a magnanimous  system  of  government,  etc. 
The  National  Unionists  are  somewhat  conservative  in  their 
tendencies,  but  their  programme  is  also  extremely  nebulous. 
On  one  point,  however,  everybody  seems  agreed,  and  that  is  a 
horror  of  any  attempt  to  increase  taxation,  and  not  even  the 
most  seductive  of  projects  will  induce  the  Chamber  to  budge 
an  inch  in  this  direction — an  economical  consistency  which  is 
a distinct  virtue  considering  the  youth  and  inexperience  of  the 
Japanese  House  of  Representatives. 

The  influential  politicians  do  not  forma  part  of  the  Chamber, 
nearly  all  of  them  having  been  ennobled,  and,  what  is  more, 
with  one  exception,  they  are  not  avowed  chiefs  of  any 
party.  If  Count  Itagaki,  an  old  Radical,  is  the  official  leader 
of  the  Liberals,  Count  Okuma,  by  far  the  most  original  states- 
man in  the  Empire,  does  not  profess  to  be  the  leader  of  the 
Progressives,  although  he  is  extremely  intimate  with  them. 
Neither  does  Marshal  Yamagata  openly  declare  his  influence 
over  the  National  Unionists.  This  action  on  the  part  of  those 
who  in  any  other  country  would  be  popularly  known  as  leaders 
of  the  various  parties  undoubtedly  weakens  the  influence  of 
the  several  groups  in  the  Japanese  Parliament.  As  to  the  re- 
presentatives of  the  two  clans  in  power  in  the  House,  needless 
to  say,  the  feeling  of  clanship  carries  all  before  it,  even  party 
interests.  Three  Satsuma  deputies  who  belong  to  the  Pro- 
gressives immediately  withdrew  when  this  party  in  a prelim 
inary  meeting  declared  opposition  to  the  Matsukata  Ministry. 

The  men  of  the  Southern  clans  have  now  governed  Japan 
for  over  thirty  years,  and  governed  her  well.  The  able  and 
energetic  statesmen  of  the  first  days  of  the  Restoration  have 
been  succeeded  by  others  of  equal  ability,  and  of  the  same 
school.  They  are  surrounded,  however,  by  a bureaucracy 
which  existed  in  Japan  even  in  the  days  of  the  last  Shoguns, 
and  closely  resembles  that  of  Prussia,  which,  although  arro- 
gant, is  highly  educated  and  progressive.  They  are  sup- 
ported by  a powerful  and  well-disciplined  army,  a navy  whose 
officers  are  for  the  most  part  members  of  the  same  clans  as  the 

161  M 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


Ministers,  and  the  heads  of  the  Civil  Service.  These  men 
have  led  their  country  happily  through  a series  of  unexampled 
changes,  transforming  her  from  a feudal  to  a modern  State 
administered  on  advanced  principles.  They  have  placed  her 
in  an  excellent  financial  position,  they  have  covered  her 
with  military  glory,  and  have  assured  her  a period  of  extra- 
ordinary prosperity  and  economic  development.  These  ob- 
servations force  themselves  upon  the  impartial  spectator  who 
visits  Japan  with  the  object  of  studying  the  remarkable  progress 
she  has  made  in  so  surprisingly  short  a time. 

It  is  impossible  not  to  feel  some  anxiety  lest  affairs  should 
be  wrenched  from  the  hands  of  such  experienced  statesmen  as 
those  of  the  Satsuma  and  the  Choshiu  clans,  only  to  be 
scrambled  for  among  the  groups  into  which  the  Chamber  is  at 
present  divided.  This,  however,  need  not  make  us  despair 
of  the  success  of  Parliamentary  Government  in  Japan.  We 
must  not  forget  that  the  British  Parliament  was  not  shaped  in 
a day,  and  that  in  all  countries  in  which  this  particular  form  of 
government  has  been  accepted  many  years  have  had  to  elapse 
before  it  attained  anything  approaching  perfection,  and  it  is 
but  natural  that  Japan  should  go  through  the  same  experience. 
To  be  just,  however,  considerable  progress  has  lately  been 
made  in  the  right  direction.  The  parties  which  possess 
any  kind  of  adhesion  have  occasionally  participated  more  or 
less  directly  in  the  Government.  Marquis  Ito  brought  Count 
Itagaki  into  the  Cabinet  of  1895,  at  the  end  of  his  Ministry 
was  himself  supported  in  the  Chamber  by  the  Liberals.  Then, 
again,  in  1896  Count  Matsukata  came  into  power  in  company 
with  Count  Okuma,  favoured  by  the  Progressives.  Throughout 
the  whole  of  the  Session  of  1896-97,  thanks  to  their  support 
and  to  that  of  the  secondary  groups,  the  Government  pos- 
sessed a decided  majority  which  did  honour  to  the  political 
acumen  of  the  Ministers  and  to  the  wisdom  of  the  members. 
Unfortunately,  in  the  autumn  of  1897  the  Progressives  grew 
tired  of  a Cabinet  which  did  not  fulfil  its  promises,  and  with- 
drew, carrying  with  them  Count  Okuma ; but  this  attempt 
showed  on  the  one  hand  that  the  Government  had  recognised 
the  importance  of  an  understanding  with  a party,  and  on  the 
other  that  such  an  understanding  possessed  some  staying  power. 
Since  the  month  of  October,  1898,  the  Yamagata  Ministry  has 
had  to  deal  with  a very  reasonable  Parliament,  which  has  un- 
hesitatingly passed  those  laws  which  were  required  to  extricate 

162 


JAPAN 


the  country  from  its  financial  difficulties,  and  also  divers 
measures  necessitated  by  recently  concluded  treaties  with  Euro- 
pean Powers.  All  this  seems  to  indicate  that  under  certain  grave 
circumstances  the  Japanese  Parliament  is  quite  capable  of 
rising  to  the  occasion,  and  possesses  the  great  quality,  as  I have 
said  once  before,  of  a spirit  of  economy  often,  unfortunately, 
absent  from  the  more  experienced  Parliaments  of  Europe. 
If  the  Japanese  Parliament  ever  returns  to  its  old  turbulent  and 
boisterous  humours,  and  insists  upon  governing  instead  of  con- 
trolling. and  if  its  irreconcilable  Opposition  incurs  the  risk  of  com- 
promising the  interests  of  the  country,  it  is  not  at  all  improbable 
that  the  Constitution  may  be  seriously  embarrassed  by  a series 
of  crises,  but  at  present  there  is  not  much  chance  of  exceptional 
measures  creating  any  serious  trouble.  If  the  voters  of  Japan 
are  apt  to  display  an  over-exuberance  at  elections,  this  is  due 
in  the  main  to  the  fact  that  they  are  new  to  their  business,  and 
moreover  they  form  but  a very  small  proportion  of  the  popu- 
lation. The  masses  are  absolutely  indifferent  to  political 
agitation.  The  newspapers,  which  are  read  in  the  towns,  make 
but  slight  reference  to  politics,  and  are  mainly  filled  with 
gossip,  novels  and  anecdotes,  while  to  the  vast  majority  of  the 
people  the  Emperor  is  still  a demi-god,  and  the  last  thing  the 
commercial  classes  would  approve  would  be  a series  of  riotous 
scenes  in  the  Chamber. 


163 


M 2 


CHAPTER  IX 

japan’s  foreign  policy  and  her  military  power 

The  military  forces  of  Japan — The  part  they  may  play  in  the  Far  East — 
Japanese  army  and  navy — Excellent  qualities  and  sound  instruction  of 
the  troops — Remarkable  power  of  organization  displayed  during  the 
war  with  China — Importance  of  a Japanese  alliance  for  the  Powers 
interested  in  China — The  feeling  of  Japan  towards  foreign  countries — 
Her  conservative  policy  in  China  since  the  war — Her  policy  hostile  to 
Russia  and  favourable  to  England — The  Korean  Question — Motives 
which  might  lessen  her  feeling  of  hostility  towards  Russia — Japan  the 
champion  of  the  integiity  of  the  Celestial  Empire. 

The  Japanese  Parliament  having  voted  the  necessary  funds  for 
carrying  out  the  programme  of  military,  naval  and  economic 
expansion  which  was  formulated  by  the  Government  after  the 
Chino-Japanese  War,  the  Empire  will  have,  as  we  have  already 
seen,  without  mentioning  new  railways  and  other  public  works, 
an  army  of  150,000  men  on  a peace  footing,  instead  of  from 
70,000  to  75,000,  and  will  be  able  to  send  into  the  field  500,000 
men  instead  of  from  270,000  to  280,000  men.  Her  fleet  will 
be  increased  to  67  men-of-war,  of  258,000  tons,  ii  torpedo- 
boat  destroyers,  and  1 15  torpedo-boats,  instead  of  the  33  vessels 
of  63,000  tonnage  and  26  torpedo-boats  she  had  before  the  war 
with  China. 

It  is  not  expected  that  the  completion  of  this  programme 
of  defence  will  take  place  before  1905  as  regards  the  navy, 
and  1903  with  respect  to  the  army.  As  the  matter  stands, 
however,  more  than  half  the  work  is  finished.  Of  the 
;^2 1,300,000  voted  to  defray  the  expenses  of  the  augmenta- 
tion of  the  navy,  which  includes  arsenals,  docks,  etc.,  it  was 
stipulated  that  _;^i 3,300,000  was  to  be  disbursed  before 
April  1st,  1899,  and  ;^3, 400,000  more  between  that  date 
and  April  ist,  1900.  The  lengthy  opposition  made  by  the 

164 


JAPAN 


Parliament  with  regard  to  the  raising  of  taxes  and  foreign  loans 
possibly  may  have  retarded  the  works  a little,  especially  those 
which  have  been  executed  in  Japan  ; but  the  foreign  orders 
have  been  fulfilled,  and  the  Mikado’s  navy  is  now  in  possession 
of  nearly  all  the  new  vessels  contracted  for.  The  completion  of 
at  least  three  out  of  the  five  arsenals  is  also  far  advanced.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  the  army.  Of  the  ;^7, 900,000  demanded 
for  its  increase,  ;^4,2oo,ooo  was  spent  before  April,  1896,  and 
000,000  between  that  date  and  April,  1900.  It  may  be  well 
to  remind  my  readers  that  when  everything  is  completed  the 
army  will  consist  of  twelve  divisions  instead  of  six,  exclusive 
of  the  Imperial  Guard.  Three  of  these  new  divisions  were 
completed  when  I was  in  Japan  in  1898. 

What  constitutes  the  great  importance  of  the  Japanese  factor 
in  the  Far  East,  and  consequently  throughout  the  world — the 
question  of  the  Far  East  dominating  all  others — is  that  her 
military  and  maritime  forces  are  on  the  spot.  I'he  Japanese 
navy  would  be  respectable  under  any  circumstances,  for  it  is 
equal  to  that  of  either  Italy  or  Germany ; but  it  should  be 
remembered  that  the  Western  nations  cannot  leave  their  coasts 
and  their  colonies  unprotected,  and  consequently  can  only 
send  a secondary  portion  of  their  maritime  force,  otherwise 
scattered  throughout  the  world,  into  Chinese  waters.  It  follows 
therefore  that  no  other  European  Power,  excepting  perhaps 
England,  could  bring  into  these  waters  in  case  of  war  a fleet 
in  any  way  comparable  with  that  of  the  Mikado.* 

What  has  been  said  of  the  naval  power  may  be  repeated  with 
still  greater  emphasis  of  the  military.  It  is  needless  to  recall 
the  diflficulties  to  'oe  overcome  in  transporting,  notwithstanding 
the  immense  size  of  vessels  now  in  use,  even  a single  army 
corps  to  the  Far  East,  the  long  and  minute  preparations 
necessary  for  such  an  enterprise,  or  the  perils  that  are  likely  to 
be  encountered,  unless  the  sending  Power  is  absolute  mistress 
of  the  sea.  Japan,  thanks  to  her  railways  and  Inland  Sea,  can 
now  in  a few  days  concentrate  her  whole  army  where  no  hostile 
vessel  dare  pursue  it,  in  the  island  of  Kiu-Siu,  125  miles  from 
the  coast  of  Korea,  barely  500  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Yang-tsze-Kiang,  a distance  equalling  that  between  Marseilles 
and  Algiers,  and  625  miles  from  the  Bay  of  Pe-chili,  and 

* In  normal  times,  before  the  exceptional  augmentation  of  the  effective 
resulting  ^Tom  the  events  of  1898,  England  had  in  the  Far  East  only 
twenty-six  vessels,  and  even  now  her  fleet  is  still  inferior  to  that  of  Japan. 

165 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


940  miles  from  the  entrance  to  the  Pei -ho,  the  river  which 
flows  to  Peking.  It  could,  therefore,  in  a few  days  after  the 
declaration  of  war  land  in  China  and  especially  in  Korea  such 
a force  as  no  European  Power,  excepting  Russia,  once  the 
Trans-Siberian  line  is  finished,  could  introduce  in  so  short  a 
time.*  Since  her  fleet  can  easily  protect  her  own  territory,  she 
need  keep  only  a part  of  her  reserves  at  home. 

We  have  already  seen  that  in  the  struggle  with  China,  Japan, 
with  her  naval  and  military  forces,  easily  overcame  that  rather 
contemptible  enemy.  It  was  evident  that  in  this  campaign 
the  Japanese  displayed  remarkable  organizing  ability,  and  that 
the  whole  working  of  the  delicate  machinery  of  transports, 
ambulances,  commissariat,  etc.,  was  admirably  managed.  This 
is  a great  point  in  their  favour,  especially  when  we  remember 
that  a similar  compliment  could  not  be  paid  to  many  a 
European  expedition  sent  out  against  enemies  less  redoubtable 
than  the  Chinese.  Even  the  English,  after  observing  the 
manoeuvres  of  the  Japanese  squadron  during  the  Chino-Japanese 
War,  did  not  hesitate  to  praise  their  excellence ; and  the 
military  attaches  who  followed  the  Korean  and  Manchurian 
campaign  expressed  themselves  equally  impressed  by  the 
Japanese  army. 

The  courage  of  the  Japanese  cannot  be  questioned.  They 
have  proved  it  in  their  long  and  bloody  feudal  wars,  and,  again, 
only  twenty  years  ago,  during  the  insurrection  in  Satsuma.  Their 
patriotism  is  equally  sincere,  for  they  are  the  only  Orientals 
among  whom  this  sentiment  exists,  and  with  them  it  easily 
rises  to  fanaticism.  The  endurance  of  their  troops  is  extra- 
ordinary. The  subjects  of  the  Mikado  are  unquestionably  the 
best  pedestrians  in  the  world ; and  it  needs  no  strain  on  the 
imagination  to  realize  what  must  be  the  excellence  of  the 
infantry  of  a country  whose  peasantry  use  no  cattle  to  draw 
their  waggons,  and  who  pass  their  winter  months  in  making 
pilgrimages  to  distant  sanctuaries  in  their  own  and  in  neigh- 
bouring provinces. 

In  Japan  two  men  think  nothing  of  dragsiing  a jinrikisha 
sixty  miles  in  twelve  hours,  taking  only  two  for  rest,  and  re- 
commencing their  journey  the  next  day  quite  fresh.  A Japanese 
battalion  has  been  known  to  march  twenty-five  to  thirty  miles 
in  a day,  knapsack  on  back,  without  leaving  any  stragglers 

* At  the  present  time  the  Russian  troops  in  Manchuria  and  the  Lower 
Amur  do  not  exceed  60,000  men. 

166 


JAPAN 

behind.  The  instruction  of  the  soldiers — cavalry,  perhaps,  ex- 
cepted— is  excellent,  and  they  learn  very  quickly.  1 have 
watched  the  manoeuvres  of  some  recruits  who  had  only  been 
six  weeks  in  the  regiment,  and,  although  they  had  never  in 
their  lives  been  in  European  dress  before,  they  wore  their 
uniforms  much  more  easily  than  many  of  our  young  soldiers. 
The  Japanese  are,  moreover,  excellent  shots. 

The  raw  material  of  the  Japanese  army  is,  therefore,  exceed- 
ingly  good.  It  is  provided  with  first-class  guns  and  cannon, 
and  as  the  navy  is  com.posed  of  vessels  built  by  the  best 
builders  in  Europe  and  America,  according  to  the  latest 
models,  it  goes  without  saying  that  the  artillery  is  worthy  of 
the  vessels  which  convey  it.  The  staff  may  possibly  not  attain 
the  same  high  standard  as  the  rank  and  file,  but  this  is  difficult 
to  pronounce  upon,  the  data  not  being  sufficient  to  assist  us  in 
forming  a correct  opinion.  It  seems,  however,  that  it  has  been 
accused  of  lacking  decision,  and  also  of  being  too  much  under 
the  influence  of  academic  and  technical  theories,  not  paying 
sufficient  attention  to  the  exigencies  of  modern  warfare. 

Be  this  as  it  may,  it  is  very  probable  that  in  the  case  of  Japan 
going  to  war  as  the  ally  of  a European  Power,  these  defects 
would  be  much  modified  if  they  listened  to  the  advice  of 
their  friends.  In  addition  to  the  above,  we  must  not  forget  to 
add  that  Japan  is  the  only  country  of  the  Far  East  which  works 
important  coal  mines,  and  that  two  of  the  principal  of  these  are 
situated  in  the  island  of  Kiu-Siu,  quite  close  to  that  part  of  the 
coast  nearest  Korea  and  China,  and  that  she  is,  moreover,  at 
the  present  day  mistress  of  the  Pescadors,  a strategical  point 
which  Courbet  valued  very  highly,  situated  in  the  middle 
of  the  China  Sea.  It  will  thus  be  easy  to  estimate  of  what 
value  the  co-operation  of  this  nation  would  be  to  those  Powers 
who  are  interested  in  the  Middle  Kingdom. 

It  is,  therefore,  necessary  to  know  something  of  the  feeling 
entertained  by  Japan  towards  the  Sick  Man  of  Peking,  as  well 
as  towards  the  various  doctors  assembled  round  his  bed, 
thinking  less  of  the  patient’s  recovery  than  of  the  eventual 
division  of  his  legacy.  So  far  as  China  is  concerned, 
Japan  is  undoubtedly  favourably  disposed  towards  her,  and 
since  the  war  she  has  had  no  warmer,  and,  it  may  be  added, 
no  sincerer  friend  than  her  late  enemy.  If  Japan  had 
been  allowed  a free  hand,  she  would  undoubtedly  have  re- 
organized China  to  her  own  profit,  but  possibly  Europe,  in 

167 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


preventing  this,  displayed  considerable  acumen,  for  her  so  doing 
m-ight  in  the  long-run  have  proved  dangerous.  Next  to  being 
able  to  reform  China  herself,  Japan  would  like  her  to  undertake 
her  own  reformation,  and  place  herself  in  a position  to  main- 
tain her  autonomy,  so  as  not  to  fall  a prey  to  the  European 
Powers. 

The  Ministers  of  the  Mikado  are  very  naturally  somewhat 
alarmed  at  the  thought  that  their  country  may  soon  be  the  only 
one  in  the  whole  world  inhabited  by  a non  European  race 
that  maintains  its  independence,  and  they  cannot  forbear  asking 
themselves  how  long  this  independence  may  be  allowed  to 
last,  all  the  more  so  since  Japan  is  in  immediate  contact  with, 
numerically  speaking,  the  most  powerful  State  in  the  world,  the 
colossal  Russian  Empire,  which  borders  upon  China.  Might 
not  Japan  under  these  circumstances  be  constantly  menaced 
by  so  formidable  a neighbour?  Doubtless  she  would  be  able 
to  resist  an  invasion,  but  at  a terrific  sacrifice — for  to  conquer 
Japan  it  would  be  necessary  to  exterminate  many  millions  of 
Japanese.  In  any  case  Japan’s  foreign  influence  would  be  at 
an  end,  especially  in  Korea,  which  she  has  several  times  con- 
quered, and  upon  which  she  still  cherishes  pretensions  that 
date  over  2,000  years.  Even  from  the  purely  economic  side 
she  would  suffer  greatly ; for  her  principal  commercial  outlet, 
China,  might  be  closed  to  her  for  good. 

These  are  the  principal  reasons  which  oblige  the  Japanese 
to  remain  the  devoted  friends  of  the  Chinese  Empire,  and  at 
the  same  time  the  adversaries  of  Russia,  who,  they  believe, 
wishes  to  absorb  China,  and  thereby  dominate,  if  not  the 
whole,  at  least  the  north,  of  the  Asiatic  Continent,  and  which 
compel  them  to  throw  in  their  lot  with  England.  This  latter 
Power  does  not  aim  at  the  political  annexation  of  China  ; she 
only  wishes  to  obtain  additional  facilities  for  her  commerce  and 
concessions  for  public  works,  and  has  therefore  no  intention 
whatever  of  surrounding  the  Celestial  Empire  by  a formidable 
ring  of  Custom-houses.  Undoubtedly  Japan  bas  had  good 
reason  to  seek  an  alliance  with  England,  and  we  need  not  be 
surprised  at  her  distrust  of  Russia,  which,  having  deprived  her  of 
the  fruits  of  her  continental  conquests  in  1895,  three  years  later 
annexed  them  herself.  As  to  England,  her  interest  in  obtaining 
the  co-operation  of  Japan  is  so  self  evident  as  only  to  need 
a passing  allusion.  Through  her  friendship  with  Japan  she 
could  obtain  what  she  wants,  not  only  in  the  Far  East,  but 

168 


JAPAN 


elsewhere,  a large  and  well-organized  army  that,  owing  to  an 
unquestionable  supremacy  on  the  sea,  the  result  of  the  com- 
bination of  two  formidable  fleets,  could  be  easily  and  safely 
transported  to  the  neighbouring  continent. 

May  there  not,  however,  be  certain  other  reasons  which 
might  eventually  induce  not  so  much  Great  Britain  to  break 
off  her  Japanese  alliance  as  Japan  to  sever  her  side  of  the 
compact  and  ultimately  extend  her  hand  to  Russia  ? There 
is  ground  for  the  belief  that  such  a proposition  does  exist,  since 
there  are  Russophiles  at  Tokio  and  Japanophiles  at  St.  Peters- 
burg. Is  it  not,  moreover,  rather  imprudent  to  oppose  the 
progress  the  Tsar’s  Empire  is  making  on  the  continent  ? 
It  is,  after  all,  an  irresistible  force  resulting  from  the  very 
nature  of  things,  and  therefore  it  were  perchance  wiser  to  be 
rather  with  Russia  than  against  her.  Then,  again,  it  should 
be  remembered  that  Russia  displayed  her  goodwill  towards 
Japan  by  leaving  her  a free  hand  in  Korea,  not,  however,  until 
after  she  had  seized  Port  Arthur.  True,  the  situation  created 
in  Korea  by  the  compact  of  April,  1898,  was  precarious;  and 
possibly,  when  once  her  position  in  the  Far  East  is  con- 
solidated by  the  completion  of  the  Trans  Siberian  line,  the 
Tsar’s  Government  may  rescind  the  concession  which  it  has 
signed  and  occupy  the  peninsula.  But  even  if  we  admit  that 
this  contingency  is  a possible  one — and  it  is  by  no  means 
absolutely  certain  that  Russia  does  entertain  any  such  pro- 
ject— Japan  may  still  hope  for  compensation  elsewhere  in 
the  centre  or  south  of  China  round  the  province  of  Fu-kien, 
where  she  has  already  made  her  influence  felt,  as  also  at 
Borneo.  Russia  might  also  give  certain  tariff  guarantees,  and 
might  it  not  be  to  her  interest,  less  urgently,  perhaps,  than  in 
the  case  of  England,  to  secure  the  co-operation  of  Japan  in 
case  of  conflict?  And,  finally,  is  Great  Britain  a very  safe 
ally?  May  she  not  be  simply  using  Japan  for  her  own  ends, 
thrusting  her  forward  only  perhaps  to  abandon  her  when  she 
is  committed?  Will  she  lend  assistance  to  a commercial 
rival? 

These  are  arguments  which  are  not  without  their  influence 
at  Tokio,  where  the  difficulty  of  opposing  a solid  and  durable 
barrier  against  the  encroachments  of  Russia  on  the  continent 
is  fully  appreciated,  and  where  there  certainly  exists  a feeling  of 
distrust,  not  only  of  the  English,  but  of  all  other  Europeans. 
Political  and  military  interference  in  continental  affairs  has 

169 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


never  resulted  otherwise  than  in  weakening  an  insular  power, 
and  much  as  the  subjects  of  the  Mikado  may  desire  Korea,  it 
should  not  be  forgotten  that,  however  great  Japan’s  interests 
may  be  in  that  direction,  she  may  easily  renounce  her  pre- 
tensions on  terra  firma  if  she  were  offered  some  material  and 
tangible  compensation  elsewhere.  It  has  been  said  that  Japan 
had  cast  a longing  eye  on  the  Philippines,  and  certain  signs 
led  many  to  think  that  at  one  time  she  had  played  with  the 
rebels  in  those  islands  much  the  same  part  enacted  by  the 
United  States  in  Cuba ; but  now  America  has  seized  upon 
these  islands,  and  has  also  annexed  Hawaii,  another  spot 
coveted  by  Japan.  Unfortunately,  Japan  has  come  too  late 
into  the  world  to  possess  colonies,  and  must  therefore  content 
herself  with  the  solitary  Formosa,  which,  however,  is  a posses- 
sion by  no  means  to  be  despised. 

Still,  even  now,  Japan  does  not  lose  all  hope  of  eventually 
obtaining  a footing  upon  the  continent ; but,  providing  that 
others  do  not  handle  China  too  roughly,  she  has  no  intention 
of  interfering  with  her  neighbour,  certainly  not  to  menace  her 
integrity.  She  wishes  only  to  consolidate  her  by  augmenting 
at  the  same  time  her  own  influence,  and  would  not  intervene 
even  if  she  thought  the  Celestial  Empire  were  in  danger.  From 
the  point  of  view  of  international  politics,  Japan  is  certainly  a 
conservative  element ; but  in  the  day  of  struggle,  should  it 
ever  oocur,  she  is  destined  to  weigh  very  heavily  in  the  scale, 
not  only  in  the  solution  of  the  question  of  the  Far  East,  but 
also  in  the  problem  which  rises  behind  it — that  of  supremacy 
in  the  Pacific,  which  will  one  day  be  fought  out,  not  between 
the  Whale  and  the  Elephant,  but  between  the  Elephants  of  the 
Old  and  the  New  Worlds — that  is  to  say,  between  Russia  and 
the  United  States.  But  whatever  may  be  the  events  which  will 
eventually  transpire,  Japan  apparently  does  not  wish  to  precipi- 
tate a struggle,  provided  only  that  the  maintenance  of  the  status 
quo  is  not  threatened  by  others. 


170 


CHAPTER  X 


THE  FUTURE  OF  WESTERN  CIVILIZATION  IN  JAPAN — RELA- 
TIONS BETWEEN  JAPANESE  AND  FOREIGNERS 

Questions  which  are  raised  by  the  recent  evolution  in  Japan — Can  the 
Japanese  assimilate  the  civilization  of  peoples  of  a different  race? — 
Precedents  and  analogies — Up  to  what  point  does  Japan  wish  to 
resemble  Europe  ? — Character  and  degree  of  the  changes  which  have 
taken  place  in  Japan  from  the  social,  political,  and  economical  point 
of  view — Adaptation  of  Western  institutions  in  Japan — Feeling  of  the 
Japanese  towards  foreigners — The  revision  of  treaties  with  foreign 
Powers — The  absolute  necessity  for  Japan  to  enter  into  intimate 
relationship  with  the  rest  of  the  world  if  she  wishes  to  retain  her 
newly-acquired  civilization. 

To  one  who  has  studied  Japan  on  the  spot,  a very  serious 
question  presents  itself  for  solution,  one  of  vast  importance, 
not  only  to  the  inhabitants  of  that  island  Empire,  but  to  the 
entire  human  family,  i.e..  Will  the  evolution  which  this  country 
has  undergone  prove  permanent  and  not  likely  to  collapse  at  a 
given  moment,  bringing  with  it  the  ruin  of  the  State  ? In  a 
word,  the  question  is,  whether  it  be  possible  for  a people  so 
suddenly  to  assimilate  the  old-established  and  elaborate 
civilization  of  another  race.  Let  us,  to  begin  with,  remember 
that  the  Japanese  have  already  afforded  precedents  proving  that 
they  possess  powers  of  assimilation  in  a rare  degree.  From  the 
third  to  the  sixth  century  of  our  era  they  introduced  Chinese 
civilization  into  their  dominions,  and  from  the  ethnographic 
point  of  view,  whether  the  Japanese  belong  to  the  jMongol  or 
to  the  Malay  family,  they  are  not  so  far  removed  from  the 
Chinese  as  the  whites  ; nevertheless  they  are  quite  as  distinct 
from  them  as  are  the  Aryans  from  the  Semites,  and  as  the 
French  or  the  Germans  from  the  Arabs.  The  example  of  Russia 
is  perhaps  less  marked,  because  more  intimate  affinities  unite 
the  Slavs  to  the  Western  races,  and  yet  the  Russians  are  the 

171 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


least  Slav  of  any  of  the  Slavs,  being  in  reality  for  the  most  part 
Finns  who  have  submitted  to  Slav  influences.  The  Finns  are 
related  to  the  Mongols,  and  Muscovy,  moreover,  was  under 
the  Tatar  yoke  for  three  centuries,  a dominion  which  has  left 
a very  profound  impression  on  the  race.  Peter  the  Great’s 
enterprise  was  therefore  not  an  easy  one.  The  principal 
objection,  however,  which  can  be  brought  against  the  example 
of  Russia  is  that  her  evolution  was  never  completed,  and  did 
not  influence  the  lower  strata  of  society  sufficiently  for  it  to 
become  completely  Europeanized.  Hungary  offers  a better 
field  of  investigation  in  this  direction,  for  the  peoples  who 
originally  invaded  her  were  distinctly  Oriental,  but  now  this 
country  has  become  absolutely  European,  the  result  probably 
of  an  intimate  connection  between  its  inhabitants  and  their 
neighbours.  But  beyond  these  facts,  there  is  one  point  which 
we  should  not  overlook.  Our  own  civilization  is  not  the 
monopoly  of  one  race,  but  was  constructed  by  the  concurrence 
of  many  people.  It  results  directly  from  Roman  and  Greek 
civilization,  and  through  these  from  Phoenician  and  Egyptian. 
The  Egyptians,  needless  to  say,  were  a branch  of  the  Hamites, 
the  most  degraded  white  race  of  our  time  ; the  Phoenicians,  on 
the  other  hand,  were  Semites,  and  it  was  another  Semitic 
race,  the  Arab,  that  during  the  Middle  Ages  held  the  light 
of  civilization,  and  transmitted  to  us  the  inheritance  of 
antiquity,  after  having  widely  extended  its  scientific  uses.  The 
whole  history  of  our  civilization,  therefore,  protests  against  its 
having  ever  been  at  any  time  monopolized  by  the  Aryan 
branch  of  the  white  race. 

Modern  ethnography,  based  upon  recent  linguistic  and 
anthropological  discoveries,  has  shaken  to  its  foundations  those 
notions  concerning  the  white  races  which  were  universally 
accepted  in  bygone  times.  We  no  longer  hold  that  it  was  from 
the  high  plateau  of  Asia  that  swept  those  tribes  who  eventually 
peopled  Europe,  but  that  they  radiated  from  the  centre  of 
Europe  herself.  Far  from  forming  the  majority  of  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  Continent,  the  Aryans,  if  that  term  still  preserves 
its  meaning,  are  but  one  of  its  elements.  They  have  mingled 
everywhere  in  variable  quantities  among  the  different  hordes  of 
Finnish  and  other  races  who  have  overrun  our  continent. 
The  varied  formation  of  the  skulls  which  has  been  observed 
among  the  different  inhabitants  of  a single  country  corre- 
sponds with  the  predominance  of  one  or  other  of  these  original 

172 


JAPAN 


elements,  with  the  result  that  the  unity  of  race  which  has 
hitherto  been  imagined  to  exist  among  all  Western  peoples  is 
now  proved  to  be  chimerical. 

Whatever  truth  these  theories  may  contain,  they  are  never- 
theless subject  to  frequent  modification,  but  it  seems  im- 
possible with  the  present  facts  to  sustain  a priori  that  one  race 
cannot  assimilate  the  civilization  of  another.  No  doubt  the 
Japanese  differ  more  completely  from  the  Europeans  of  the 
West  than  do  the  Russians,  or  even  the  Arabs,  or  than  they 
themselves  do  from  the  Chinese ; but  once  the  unity  of  the 
human  race  is  admitted,  this  becomes  a mere  question  of  degree 
of  parentage.  Must  we,  therefore,  draw  a line  of  degree 
between  peoples  beyond  which  the  transmission  of  the  civiliza- 
tion of  the  one  cannot  penetrate  to  the  other,  even  as  the 
French  law  fixes  a limit  to  the  transmission  of  inheritance? 
Nothing  short  of  experience  can  solve  the  question.  For  the 
matter  of  that,  the  phenomenon  is  constantly  taking  place  before 
our  eyes,  and  if  there  be  a people  who  might  attempt  it  with 
hope  of  success,  it  is  surely  the  Japanese,  who  to  exceptional 
intelligence  and  remarkable  powers  of  assimilation  add  a great 
spirit  of  enterprise  and  an  uncommon  energy. 

Japan  cannot  be  compared  fora  moment  with  China;  for, 
much  younger  than  her  Celestial  neighbour — since  she  re- 
ceived her  civilization  at  her  hands  at  a period  contemporary 
with  the  fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  when  the  annals  of  China 
reached  as  far  back  into  the  night  of  time  as  those  of  Egypt — 
she  has  not  had  time  to  fossilize  herself  in  sterile  admiration  of 
the  past,  and  she  has  never  adopted  that  mandarinate  which 
China  considers  one  of  her  chief  glories,  but  which  is  in  reality 
slowly  ruining  her.  Above  all,  like  Europe  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  she  has  submitted  to  the  virile  influences  of  the  feudal 
system,  and,  therefore,  there  is  no  reason  a priori  why  she 
should  not  succeed  in  her  enterprise.  Whether  or  no  Japan 
wishes  to  convert  herself  on  every  point  into  an  absolutely 
Europeanized  nation,  and  a Western  European  nation  at  that, 
is  another  question  which  demands  close  attention.  Possibly 
it  is  an  exaggeration  to  say  that  the  promoters  of  the  remark- 
able series  of  reforms  which  have  lately  been  effected  in  Japan 
had  ever  an  eye  to  so  complete  a transformation.  The  first 
reform  which  engrossed  their  attention  was  undoubtedly  to 
place  their  country,  which  had  so  suddenly  broken  through  her 
ancient  tradition  of  isolation,  on  a military,  naval,  and  an 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


economical  basis,  that  would  enable  her  to  treat  as  an  equal 
with  any  of  the  other  nations  of  the  world.  The  Japanese  are 
the  only  Oriental  people  who  have  understood  the  conditions 
necessary  to  attain  this  aim.  Japan  discerned  that  by  accept- 
ing a military  and  economic  position  equal  to  that  of  any 
European  country,  she  was  also  obliged  to  undergo  immense 
changes  in  every  department  of  her  national  existence,  and  she 
unflinchingly  faced  her  new  position,  resolved  to  accomplish 
every  sort  of  transformation  in  order  to  place  herself  on  a firm 
footing. 

It  seems  to  me  that  Japan  has  solved  the  difficult  question 
as  to  which  were  the  changes  she  ought  to  undergo.  The  fact 
that  she  has  accepted  the  entire  programme  of  European 
civilization,  barring  a few  domestic  usages,  certain  traditions  of 
family  existence  and  religion,  speaks  for  itself.  The  religious 
question  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  and  curious  phases  of 
Japanese  experience.  Until  the  present  day  history  has  always 
demonstrated  that  the  first  act  of  a people  which  desired  to 
model  itself  upon  another  was  to  adopt  its  religion,  and  in  Japan 
itself  1,500  years  ago  Buddhism  paved  the  way  for  the  advent 
of  Chinese  civilization.  In  the  sixteenth  century,  at  a time 
when  she  was  first  brought  into  contact  with  Europeans,  Chris- 
tianity played  an  important  part,  and  soon  made  many 
proselytes.  To-day  it  is  otherwise.  The  Mikado,  it  is  true, 
does  not  prevent  his  subjects  from  embracing  Christianity,  but 
he  does  not  encourage  them  to  do  so.  Most  probably  this  is 
the  result  of  the  fact  that  religion  is  no  longer  the  foremost 
factor  in  Western  civilization,  and  is  somewhat  veiled  by  im- 
portant scientific  discoveries  and  material  improvements,  and, 
whether  rightly  or  wrongly,  there  can  be  no  question  that  the 
spirit  of  the  century  pretends  to  solve  political  and  social 
problems  outside  of  the  sphere  of  religion. 

The  Japanese  have  evidently  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that 
it  was  unnecessary  to  efiect  a transformation  in  an  order  of 
ideas  which  the  Europeans  themselves  apparently  consider 
accessory.  If  one  day  they  find  that  they  have  made  a mis- 
take, it  probably  will  not  take  them  long  to  change  their  minds; 
but  for  the  present  they  have  preferred  to  rally  round  the 
popular  idea,  neutrality  of  the  State  in  matters  of  religion  and 
freedom  of  conscience  to  all,  and  this  allows  them  to  retain 
Buddhism  and  Shintoism  as  the  religion  of  the  immense 
majority  of  the  people. 


174 


JAPAN 


From  the  civil  point  of  view,  on  the  other  hand,  they  have 
introduced  many  European  reforms.  Japanese  society  formerly 
resembled  in  many  ways  that  of  ancient  Rome,  especially  with 
respect  to  the  constitution  of  the  family.  The  new  civil  code 
which  has  been  carried  into  effect  is  more  in  accordance  with 
modern  ideas,  and  modifies  the  excessive  habit  of  adoption, 
diminishes  the  power  of  the  head  of  the  family  over  his  married 
children  and  his  younger  brothers,  and  raises  somewhat  the 
position  of  women,  who  were  already  freer  in  Japan  than  in 
any  other  Oriental  country.  But  it  also  permits,  in  accordance 
with  Japanese  traditions,  very  slight  difference  to  exist  between 
legitimate  and  illegitimate  children,  and  on  this  point,  as  on 
that  of  divorce — whether  for  good  or  otherwise  I do  not 
consider  myself  called  upon  to  judge — it  shapes  itself  very 
much  on  the  same  lines  as  does  modern  legislation  elsewhere. 
The  personal  status,  therefore,  of  a Japanese  is  very  much  the 
same  as  that  of  a European,  and  the  laws  relating  to  property 
have  for  a long  time  been  identical  with  our  own.  As  to  the 
penal  code,  it  is  one  of  the  most  moderate  in  the  world,  and 
the  death  sentence  is  only  passed  in  cases  of  crime  against  the 
Emperor. 

Politically  speaking,  the  Japanese  have  gone  further  still, 
and  have  given  themselves  a Constitution  analogous,  as 
already  stated,  to  that  of  Prussia.  It  may  perhaps  be  queried 
whether  they  were  wise  in  accepting  so  entirely  our  repre- 
sentative system;  but  undoubtedly  within  the  last  eight  years 
Parliamentary  life  in  Japan  has  made  rapid  strides,  and,  indeed, 
is  neither  better  nor  worse  than  it  is  in  many  a European 
country,  d'he  parties  do  not  come  to  stay  long,  and  their 
programmes  are  very  confused.  The  relation  between  the 
clans  and  the  provinces  plays  a very  conspicuous  part  in  the 
Parliamentary  existence  ; but,  for  the  matter  of  that,  so  they 
do  in  Italy  and  elsewhere.  Even  if  it  has  been  a rather  pre- 
mature experience,  nevertheless  Parliamentary  Government  in 
Japan  seems  likely  to  stay.  The  numerous  provincial  and 
communal  assemblies  carry  out  their  business  fairly  well, 
although,  to  be  sure,  there  are  whispers  of  a slight  amount  of 
corruption — but  where  is  it  otherwise  ? One  of  the  happiest 
traits  of  Japanese  evolution  is  that  there  appears  little  pro- 
bability of  its  ending,  like  the  great  Russian  transformation 
under  Peter  the  Great,  in  the  creation  of  two  distinct  classes, 
separated  by  an  insurmountable  barrier.  There  is  no  serfdom 

175 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


or  anything  to  maintain  the  Japanese  peasantry  in  the  same 
position  of  inferiority  as  the  Russian  mujik,  and  the  mass  of 
the  nation  unhesitatingly  follows  the  lead  of  its  chiefs. 

Refined  by  from  twelve  to  fifteen  centuries  of  civilization, 
the  subjects  of  the  Mikado  are  much  better  educated  than  were 
those  of  Peter  the  Great,  and  therefore  can  march  with  far 
greater  assurance  on  the  road  to  progress.  While  the  small- 
ness of  the  country  and  the  density  of  its  population,  con- 
centrated for  the  most  part  on  the  coast  line,  are  likewise 
aids  to  the  rapid  penetration  of  new  ideas,  still  further  assisted 
by  a well-organized  system  of  primary  instruction  and  a military 
service,  it  is,  however,  rather  from  the  material  point  of  view 
that  the  change  has  been  most  striking  and  rapid. 

Without  returning  to  the  matter  of  the  extraordinary  rapidity 
of  the  increase  of  industry,  there  is  one  subject  connected  with 
it  which  I cannot  forbear  dwelling  upon,  and  that  is  the  ex- 
cessive ability  with  which  the  Japanese  have  succeeded  in 
organizing  certain  public  services  introduced  from  the  West  in 
such  a manner  as  to  place  them  within  the  reach  of  even  the 
poorest.  In  many  European  colonies  the  high  tariff  of  the 
rail  and  postal  services  deters  the  natives  from  using  them;  but 
in  Japan  it  is  otherwise.  There  you  pay  on  the  railway  |d.  a 
mile  first  class,  -|d.  second,  and  Jd.  third,  which  latter  is  used  by 
the  majority  of  the  people,  and  the  total  returns  for  2,290  miles 
of  Japanese  rail,  notwithstanding  these  low  rates,  reached  in 
1895  .^^1)878,600  (of  which  1, 1 79,600  were  paid  by  travellers), 
as  against  ;^7 66,300  for  expenses,  the  profits  being  ;^i,  112,300, 
or  about  10  per  cent,  upon  the  outlay  capital,  which  was 
^11,649,200.  The  post  is  also  extremely  cheap  in  Japan, 
being  charged  for  letters  and  Jd.  for  post-cards.  In 
1896-97  503,000,000  objects  passed  through  the  post-office,  of 
which  263,000,000  were  post-cards,  122,000,000  letters,  and 
87,000,000  newspapers.  The  preponderating  number  of  post- 
cards, which  surpasses  that  of  letters,  is  strikingly  in  contra- 
distinction to  what  one  observes  in  every  other  country,  and  is 
a proof  of  the  economical  habits  of  the  people  and  of  their 
appreciation  of  this  cheap  method  of  correspondence.  The 
enthusiasm  with  which  the  population  profits  by  all  the  inno- 
vations introduced  from  the  West  is  a convincing  proof  of  the 
very  slight  resistance  which  the  implanting  of  our  civiliza- 
tion receives.  Yet  another  favourable  sign  is  the  exceptional 
number  of  students  in  the  new  universities  and  public  schools 

176 


JAPAN 


of  all  descriptions.  Practical  science,  law,  and  medicine  attract 
the  majority  of  the  students,  and  already  many  of  them  have 
attained  marked  success  in  their  several  careers.  As  an  example, 
I may  mention  that  it  was  a Japanese  who  discovered  the 
microbe  of  the  bubonic  plague.  The  Japanese  are  sometimes, 
and  possibly  with  some  truth,  accused  of  lacking  the  inventive 
faculty  ; but  those  peoples  who  are  from  many  points  of  view 
at  the  head  of  civilization  at  the  present  day,  the  English 
and  the  Americans,  are  not  those  among  whom  the  power  of 
invention  is  exceptionally  prominent,  it  is  in  France  or  in 
Germany  that  the  principles  of  nearly  all  modern  discoveries 
have  been  found,  but  it  is  in  England  and  the  United  States 
that  their  application  has  been  perfected.  No  one,  however, 
can  refuse  the  Japanese  this  latter  gift,  and  they  unquestionably 
possess  an  almost  excessive  faculty  of  attention  to  minute 
detail.  Possibly  they  have  not  so  far  materially  assisted  in 
advancing  science,  and  surely  it  is  somewhat  premature  to 
pronounce  judgment  on  this  subject ; but  with  good  technical 
teachers — and  everything  points  that  they  will  have  them — 
they  can  certainly  soon  acclimatize  European  civilization  in 
their  country,  precisely  as  they  did  in  days  of  old  that  of  China, 
but  only  on  the  condition  that  they  keep  themselves  well  in 
touch  with  Europe. 

Their  principal  danger,  however,  seems  to  me  to  consist  in 
their  attempting  to  isolate  themselves  too  much,  and  to  believe 
that  they  have  learnt  everything  that  can  be  taught  them,  and 
consequently  have  no  further  use  for  their  masters.  Perhaps, 
too,  in  certain  cases  they  have  got  rid  only  too  quickly  of  the 
services  of  foreign  functionaries  and  councillors.  Throughout  the 
whole  of  the  eighteenth  century  Russia,  so  to  speak,  modelled 
herself  on  the  German  plan,  and  Japan  would  also  do  well  not 
to  forget  too  hastily  the  advice  of  Western  teachers.  Already 
a certain  amount  of  negligence  is  noticeable  in  the  post-office 
and  on  the  railways,  whose  systems  are  occasionally  dislocated  by 
many  irregularities  and  also  by  a certain  carelessness,  usually 
attributed  to  excess  of  work  or  to  the  breakdown  of  machinery, 
but  which  is  more  probably  due  to  the  inexperience  of  the 
public  servants  of  the  entire  hierarchy.  The  fact  is,  Japan 
does  not  at  present  value  the  most  characteristic  feature  of 
modern  civilization — punctuality ; but,  to  be  just,  when  we 
consider  the  indolent  habits  of  Asiatics  in  general,  we  should 
not  be  surprised  at  this,  rather  the  contrary.  It  would,  how- 

177  N 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


ever,  be  well  for  the  Japanese,  until  they  have  got  thoroughly 
trained  to  an  appreciation  of  the  value  of  time,  to  retain 
officials  who  will  remind  them  of  its  importance. 

It  may  also  be  added  that  in  the  commercial  development 
considerable  inexperience  and  too  great  zeal  in  every  branch, 
industrial,  financial,  and  commercial,  has  been  displayed  : in 
the  over- rapid  increase,  for  instance,  of  banks  and  companies 
of  all  kinds,  in  the  mismanagement  of  new  societies,  and  in 
the  abuse  that  has  frequently  been  made  of  credit.  All  these 
things  are  new  to  Japan,  and  they  have  occasionally  not  been 
treated  as  they  should  have  been.  We  have  bestowed  so 
much  praise  on  the  economical  development  of  the  country 
that  we  may  surely  be  allowed  to  observe  that  much  has  been 
done  too  quickly.  But  this  has  been  the  case  in  all  new 
countries,  in  the  two  Americas,  as  well  as  in  Australia,  and 
one  must  not  therefore  be  too  severe  on  Japan  in  this  respect, 
but  also  not  surprised  if  it  occasionally  results  in  the  paralysis 
of  business  and  even  in  an  occasional  crisis.  As  often  occurs, 
a rise  in  salaries  accompanied  industrial  expansion,  and  proved 
very  inconvenient  to  export  industries,  all  the  more  so  as  these 
are  for  the  most  part  mainly  nominal,  and  prices  rose  almost 
immediately.  During  the  last  two  years  an  inverse  movement 
has  taken  place,  and  we  must  do  the  Japanese  the  justice  to 
say  that  when  they  saw  the  danger  they  displayed  considerable 
sagacity,  and  both  the  Government  and  the  public  expressed  a 
wish  to  limit  their  desire  for  expansion.  If  there  were  serious 
economic  difficulties  in  Japan  in  1897-98,  they  seem  now  to 
have  passed  away  j they  were  but  the  result  of  over-activity,  and 
the  present  outlook  in  the  Mikado’s  dominion,  although  not 
as  brilliant  as  it  was  immediately  after  the  war,  is  once  more 
normal. 

The  transitory  troubles  of  the  Empire  of  the  Rising  Sun  will 
not,  in  our  opinion,  become  very  grave  if  the  Japanese  thoroughly 
understand  that  it  is  to  their  interest  rather  to  increase  their 
contact  with  foreigners  than  to  limit  it.  Since  1889  there  has 
existed  in  Japan  a reactionary  movement  against  strangers, 
which  apparently  reached  its  culminating  point  in  1896,  and 
now  seems  gradually  diminishing.  It  is  sincerely  to  be  hoped 
that  this  feeling  of  suspicion  will  absolutely  disappear.  One 
of  the  numerous  reasons  which  contributed  to  raise  a certain 
hostility  against  Europeans  was  their  attitude  with  respect 
to  the  renewal  of  the  treaties.  This  important  question,  which 

178 


JAPAN 

so  closely  concerned  the  relations  between  the  Japanese  and 
foreigners,  has  now  been  settled,  and  if  Japanese  statesmen  are 
well  inspired,  the  solution  that  has  been  arrived  at  should 
greatly  enhance  the  true  interests  of  their  country. 

Almost  immediately  after  the  Restoration,  the  Government 
of  the  Mikado  expressed  the  desire  to  revise  the  treaties  con- 
cluded between  it  and  the  foreign  Powers  during  the  last 
years  of  the  old  regime.  What  it  most  desired  was  to  abrogate 
the  extra-territorial  privileges  granted  to  strangers,  and  to 
render  them  responsible  to  the  native  tribunals.  It  also  hoped 
to  re-possess  itself  of  the  right  to  modify  the  Custom-house 
tariff,  which  was  very  low,  not  with  a view  to  protection,  but 
in  order  to  augment  the  revenues.  In  exchange  for  these  con- 
cessions Japan  offered  to  open  the  country  to  Europeans,  to 
allow  them  to  reside  and  to  establish  their  industries  anywhere 
outside  of  the  five  ports  in  which  they  had  hitherto  been  con- 
fined. Joint  negotiations  were  opened  with  the  seventeen 
Powers  who  had  signed  the  treaties  on  several  occasions,  but 
without  favourable  results,  and  the  check  they  received  in  1897 
greatly  irritated  public  opinion  in  Japan.  The  Government 
then  decided  to  negotiate  separately  through  the  intermediary 
of  its  representatives  in  Europe.  The  first  success  was  with 
England,  by  the  treaty  concluded  in  1894;  the  other  nations 
followed  suit,  and  the  new  treaties  were  enforced  on  July  17th, 
1899. 

For  several  years,  however,  a change  had  taken  place  in 
public  opinion  in  Japan,  and  many  people  began  to  think  that 
it  might  be  as  dangerous  to  completely  open  the  country 
to  foreigners  as  to  grant  them  privileges  of  proprietorship. 
‘They  are  much  richer  than  we  are,’  said  they,  ‘and  will  buy 
up  all  our  lands  and  strip  us  of  our  resources,  so  that  in  time 
we  shall  cease  to  be  masters  in  our  own  house.’  On  the  other 
hand,  the  Europeans  began  to  make  an  outcry  at  the  thought 
that  they  would  be  obliged  to  submit  to  Japanese  jurisdiction, 
which,  although  founded  on  the  European  system,  might  be 
misapplied  by  the  Yellow  people,  who  were  still  barbarians, 
and  who  might  use  it  to  make  the  existence  of  foreigners  in 
Japan  intolerable.  Both  views  of  the  case  were  exaggerated, 
and  rendered  the  task  of  the  various  diplomatists  an  exceedingly 
difficult  one.  Diplomacy,  however,  carried  the  day,  not  with- 
out sacrificing  the  proposed  absolute  equality  of  rights  between 
Japanese  and  foreigners. 


179 


N 2 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


The  new  treaties  accepted  the  Japanese  desideratum  re- 
specting the  suppression  of  consular  tribunals  and  European 
municipalities,  but  foreigners  were,  in  their  turn,  to  renounce 
proprietary  rights.  The  English  treaty  thus  summarizes  the 
principal  concessions  granted  : ‘ All  members  of  the  prin- 
cipal contracting  parties  may  carry  on  any  wholesale  or  retail 
business,  in  any  sort  of  product,  manufactures  and  merchandise, 
personally  or  by  their  representatives,  individually  or  through  an 
association,  either  with  other  foreigners  or  with  natives ; and 
they  shall  have  the  right  to  possess,  let  or  occupy  houses, 
shops,  manufactories  and  other  premises  as  they  deem  neces- 
sary, or  to  hire  lands,  to  live  therein,  or  to  engage  therein  in 
business,  by  conforming  themselves  to  the  laws,  and  the  police 
and  Custom-house  regulations  of  the  country,  as  if  they  were 
natives  thereof.’  This  gave  rise  to  considerable  controversy. 
It  confirmed  the  right  of  foreigners  to  possess,  let  or  occupy 
houses  and  divers  places  of  business,  but  on  the  other  hand,  it 
only  allowed  them  to  rent  land,  which  according  to  Japanese 
law  can  only  be  hired  on  short  leases  of  between  thirty  and 
fifty  years,  as  the  case  may  be,  which  is,  of  course,  a great 
hindrance  to  the  installation  of  any  important  industry. 

This  apparent  contradiction  formed  the  subject  of  an  agitated 
controversy  carried  on  by  the  English  papers  printed  at  the 
various  ports,  which  pointed  out  with  rather  thoughtless 
acrimony  that  the  new  treaty  was  only  intended  as  a blind  to 
deprive  foreigners  of  their  extra-territorial  liberties.  They 
forgot  that  outside  of  property  and  of  the  leasehold  system  the 
Japanese  code  contains  another  method  of  tenure,  called 
‘ Surface  Right,’  whereby  the  purchaser  of  a piece  of  land  has 
the  right  to  everything  that  is  on  the  surface  thereof  (excepting 
the  crops),  that  is,  to  plant  or  cut  dowm  trees  and  to  build 
thereon.  One  can  purchase  the  surface  of  the  land  in  accord- 
ance with  Japanese  law  for  as  long  a period  of  time  as  one 
likes,  a thousand  years  even,  either  on  payment  by  instalments 
or  complete  purchase.  For  any  enterprise  which  is  not  purely 
agricultural  this  purchase  is  equivalent  to  absolute  possession 
of  the  land. 

Foreigners  can  thus  establish  industries  in  Japan,  and  it  is 
therefore  to  the  interests  of  the  Japanese  to  encourage  them  so 
to  do.  Private  individuals,  as  well  as  the  Government,  ought 
to  do  everything  they  can  to  attract  foreign  capital,  but  this 
can  only  be  done  in  the  case  of  industrial  enterprises  by  allow- 

i8o 


JAPAN 


ing  foreigners  to  take  the  direction  of  affairs.  I have  been 
asked  whether  it  is  not  possible  to  induce  foreign  capitalists  to 
lend  their  money  on  sharing  terms  to  Japanese  companies  as 
they  do  to  the  American  railways,  without  taking  any  part  in 
the  direction,  but  I am  afraid  this  is  a hope  the  Japanese 
would  do  well  not  to  entertain.  Whether  it  be  through  pre- 
judice or  otherwise,  it  is  quite  certain  that  Europeans  will  do 
nothing  of  the  sort,  and  the  Japanese  seem  to  be  aware  of  the 
fact,  and  several  railway  companies  have  modified  their  statutes 
in  order  to  admit  a clause  whereby  foreigners  can  become 
shareholders;  but  as  the  Japanese  possess  all  the  land  over  which 
the  lines  run  as  well  as  the  stations,  I do  not  think  that  this 
proposition  can  be  legal.  It  is,  therefore,  to  be  regretted  that 
public  opinion  has  not  insisted  upon  a concession  of  the  right 
of  proprietorship  being  bestowed  upon  foreigners. 

It  is,  however,  not  improbable  that  before  long  the  Legisla- 
ture may  get  over  this  difficulty  by  deciding  that  in  companies 
constituted  according  to  Japanese  laws,  and  registered  in 
Japan,  the  members,  though  they  be  foreigners,  become  thereby 
Japanese  citizens,  and  can  also  be  absolute  land-owners.  How- 
ever, on  all  points  the  Japanese  Government,  supported  by  Par- 
liament and  public  opinion,  has  taken  the  necessary  precautions 
to  apply  the  new  treaties  in  the  most  liberal  manner  possible. 
If  there  have  been  some  unfavourable  verdicts  pronounced 
in  the  Japanese  tribunals  in  the  short  time  they  have  been  in 
existence,  these  have  generally  been  revised  on  appeal.  The 
greater  experience  gained  by  contact  between  the  Japanese  and 
Europeans,  and  the  wish  to  see  foreign  capital  collaborating  in 
the  development  of  the  resources  of  the  country,  will  doubtless 
suggest,  little  by  little,  new  measures  calculated  to  smooth 
down  any  feeling  of  irritation  between  the  native  and  the 
foreign  population.  If  there  still  exists  a feeling  of  hatred 
of  the  foreigner  among  individual  fanatics,  a certain  ill-will 
in  the  lower  and  more  ignorant  class  of  the  people,  some  abuse 
of  authority  among  inferior  officials,  the  Government  of  the 
Mikado  is  too  sagacious  to  allow  any  flagrant  cause  of  an- 
noyance to  disturb  European  residents,  which  would  soon 
be  resented  by  their  respective  Governments  and  might  even 
lead  to  the  scattering  of  the  fruits  of  thirty  years’  progressive 
effort. 

Japan  has  already  done  much,  but  especially  because  she 
has  done  so  much  in  so  short  a time,  and  because  the  immense 

i8i 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


majority  of  her  inhabitants  had  no  idea  thirty  years  ago  of 
European  affairs,  and  therefore  have  no  means  of  comparison, 
they  are  apt  to  exaggerate  their  progress,  however  marvellous  it 
may  be,  and  consequently  they  are  not  in  a position  to  notice 
that  certain  European  importations  come  to  them  slightly 
deteriorated.  Foreigners  act  the  part  of  critics,  and  even  if 
their  criticism  is  sometimes  severe,  it  is  nevertheless  useful. 
The  functionaries  and  the  young  men  who  are  sent  on  foreign 
missions  also  fulfil  the  same  critical  office,  and  this  is  an 
additional  reason  why  the  Government  is  so  wise  in  maintaining 
these  missions.  Unless,  indeed,  from  time  to  time  the  new 
civilization  which  has  been  imported  in  Japan  is  refreshed  at 
its  primary  source,  it  will  soon  run  a risk  of  losing  strength, 
and,  for  the  matter  of  that,  any  people,  even  European,  that 
isolated  itself  too  much  and  became  absorbed  in  self-admiration, 
would  inevitably  deteriorate.  It  is  not  belittling  the  extra- 
ordinary progress  so  rapidly  accomplished  by  the  Empire  of  the 
Rising  Sun  to  say  that  it  can  only  be  perfected  if  the  people 
of  that  wonderful  country  remain  in  contact  with  the  in- 
habitants of  Europe  and  America. 


PART  III.— CHINA 


CHAPTER  I 

THE  CHINESE  PROBLEM 

Actual  position  of  the  Far  Eastern  Question — The  Sick  Man  of  Peking— 
The  wealth  of  his  heritagj — The  immense  resources  of  the  soil  and 
subsoil  of  China,  the  latter  of  which  is  still  virgin — The  results  which 
may  be  expected  from  the  opening  up  of  China — Change  in  the 
attitude  of  the  Powers  towards  the  Celestial  Empire  since  the 
Japanese  victories  revealed  its  weakness — The  origins  of  the  Far 
Eastern  problem. 

The  decisive  victory  which  Japan  obtained  over  China  five 
years  ago  revealed  to  the  civilized  world  me  existence  in  the 
East  of  Asia  of  another  Sick  Man,  an  even  greater  invalid 
and  infinitely  richer  than  the  better  known  patient  at  Con- 
stantinople. Four  times  the  size,  and  twelve  or  fifteen  times 
more  densely  peopled  than  the  Ottoman  Empire,  China 
contains  a much  smaller  proportion  of  deserts,  her  resources 
are  greater  and  far  more  varied,  and  her  inhabitants  are  not 
only  more  industrious,  but  more  peaceful  and  apparently  much 
easier  to  govern.  Therefore,  at  the  end  of  the  nineteenth 
century — when  the  material  wealth  of  a country  is  of  far  greater 
importance  than  its  historical  memories,  and  men  are  more 
eager  to  discover  fresh  openings  for  enterprise,  new  lands  to 
cultivate,  or  mines  to  exploit  than  relics  to  preserve  or  peoples 
to  liberate — Europe  abandons  the  bedside  of  the  Grand  Turk 
to  occupy  herself  with  her  chances  of  inheriting  far  greater 
riches  from  the  Son  of  Heaven.  The  Sick  Man  on  the  shores 
of  the  Bosphorus  may  be  afflicted  with  some  dreadful  con- 
vulsion or  crisis  in  his  illness,  but  the  nations  pretend  not  to 
perceive  his  contortions,  and  joyfully  welcome  any  evidence  of 

183 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


even  a feeble  return  to  health ; in  a word,  they  only  seek  to 
prolong  his  existence.  If  the  preservation  of  peace  in  Europe 
has  its  share  in  this  attitude,  the  wish  not  to  be  disturbed  in 
the  work  which  she  pursues  in  China  has  also  its  share  in  the 
position  which  Russia  and  more  than  one  other  Power  have 
assumed  with  regard  to  the  Chinese  Empire. 

'I'he  fact  is,  the  nations  have  promised  themselves  a booty 
in  the  Middle  Kingdom  as  precious  as  it  is  easy  to  obtain. 
China  from  this  point  of  view  is  worth  a great  deal  more  than 
Turkey,  or  even  Africa,  which  Europe  has  so  eagerly  sought  to 
divide.  Although  less  extensive  than  the  Dark  Continent, 
China  is  much  more  thickly  peopled,  and  the  climate  is  less 
unhealthy,  access  easier,  the  rivers  more  navigable,  and  the 
soil  far  more  fertile.  The  patient  and  laborious  Chinese  will 
eventually  facilitate  the  exploitation  of  the  wealth  of  their  vast 
territory,  which  is  more  than  can  ever  be  expected  from  the 
barbarous,  ignorant  and  indolent  peoples  of  Africa. 

The  resources  of  China  are  greater  than  those  of  Africa, 
and  many  of  them  are  still  absolutely  undeveloped.  The 
Chinese  peasants,  moreover,  are  among  the  best  agriculturists 
in  the  world.  As  evidence  of  this  assertion,  it  should  be  remem- 
bered that,  by  the  perfection  of  their  method  of  cultivation, 
they  extract  from  the  soil  of  their  plains  sufficient  to  enable 
their  rural  population  to  multiply  in  a manner  unknown  in  the 
Western  world.  Certain  provinces  in  the  Valley  of  the  Yang- 
tsze-Kiang — Shan-tung,  Hu-pe,  Kiang-su,  and  others — in  spite 
of  their  being  purely  agricultural,  are  as  densely  peopled  as 
Belgium,  and  we  may  further  observe  that,  as  is  the  case 
throughout  the  Far  East,  wherever  rice  dominates,  the  mountain 
regions  are  almost  uninhabited.  If  the  soil  is  admirably  culti- 
vated, the  subsoil,  on  the  other  hand,  is  absolutely  neglected, 
and  only  an  insignificant  quantity  of  coal  is  extracted  from  the 
immense  coal-beds  which  cover  over  40,000  square  miles  on 
the  banks  of  the  Yellow  River,  in  the  plains  of  Hu-nan,  and 
under  the  terraces  of  Shan  si,  which,  together  with  those  equally 
important  in  the  basin  of  Shan-tung,  were  so  highly  extolled 
by  the  celebrated  traveller  Richthofen.  The  coal-beds  in 
Central  China  appear  to  be  even  more  extensive,  and  the  car- 
boniferous basin  of  Sze-chuan,  where  there  is  also  petroleum, 
covers  an  area  equal  to  half  France.  The  coal-beds  of 
Hu-nan  are  also  very  considerable,  and  minerals  are  equally 
abundant.  The  copper-mines  of  Yunnan  are  so  rich  as  to  have 

184 


CHINA 


proved  one  of  the  chief  inducements  that  attracted  the  French 
to  Tongking.  Mines  of  precious  ore  are  known  to  exist 
in  many  other  places,  but,  notwithstanding  their  very  ancient 
civilization,  the  Chinese  have  scarcely  touched  the  wealth 
beneath  their  feet.  In  this  respect  they  have  proved  them- 
selves inferior  to  the  classical  nations  of  antiquity,  and  have 
left  their  riches  to  be  garnered  by  foreigners. 

We  can  form  some  idea  of  the  development  of  which  China 
is  susceptible  by  considering  the  example  of  two  other  Asiatic 
nations  placed  in  much  the  same  conditions — British  India  and 
Japan.  India,  with  all  her  dependencies,  is  about  a sixth 
larger  than  China  proper,  but  contains  only  about  three- 
quarters  of  the  number  of  her  inhabitants ; yet  although  her 
subsoil  is  much  less  rich  and  her  population  far  more  indolent 
than  the  Chinese,  she  carries  on  double  the  trade  with  Europe 
that  the  Chinese  Empire  does.  Japan,  nine  times  smaller  and 
nine  times  less  peopled  than  China,  but  reformed  by  an 
enlightened  Government  and  by  the  introduction  of  European 
methods,  has  seen  her  commerce  rise  in  thirty  years  from 
p^5,ooo,ooo  to  p^44,ooo,ooo,  more  than  three-quarters  higher 
than  that  of  her  enormous  but  stationary  neighbour. 

Unfortunately,  an  imbecile  Government,  as  corrupt  as  it  is 
absurdly  exclusive,  impedes  the  progress  of  China  with  far 
greater  obstinacy  than  do  the  prejudices  of  her  people.  So 
long  as  the  illusion  lasted  as  to  the  power  of  this  unwieldy 
Empire,  no  one  ventured  to  tear  from  it  by  force  what  it  was 
imagined  could  be  obtained  by  persuasion,  and  the  nations 
resigned  themselves  to  permit  the  immense  resources  of  the 
interior  to  remain  untouched,  contenting  themselves  merely 
with  the  opening  of  a few  ports  to  commerce.  But  in  1894 
the  brilliant  victories  of  the  Japanese  revealed  to  an  astonished 
world  the  weakness  of  the  colossus,  its  corruption,  and  utter 
incapacity  to  regenerate  itself ; hence  the  reason  why  the 
Chino- Japanese  War  may  be  rightly  considered  one  of  the 
greatest  events  in  contemporary  history.  From  it  dates  the 
change  in  the  attitude  of  the  foreign  Powers  towards  the 
Celestial  Empire.  They  now  command  where  formerly  they 
begged,  and  have  mustered  up  couiage  to  force  the  Son  of 
Heaven  to  put  a price  on  the  treasures  of  his  Empire,  or  else 
to  allow  them  to  do  so  in  his  stead.  If  they  have  not  already 
divided  up  his  territory,  they  mortgage  portions  of  his  provinces, 
and  obtain  mining,  railway,  and  all  sorts  of  other  concessions. 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


In  the  eyes  of  the  Powers  China  is  no  longer  a country  to  be 
counted  with  as  a probable  ally,  but  merely  one  which  they 
may  one  day  reduce  to  vassalage. 

In  1895,  after  the  conclusion  of  the  war,  Russia  inaugurated 
the  new  policy  with  respect  to  China.  She  was  at  that  time 
the  only  European  nation  that  seemed  to  have  any  idea 
of  the  weakness  of  China,  and  was  already  preparing,  by 
the  construction  of  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway,  to  play  an 
important  part  in  the  Far  East.  Get  many,  France,  and 

England  in  1897  obtained  the  ‘leases’  of  various  strategical 
points  on  the  coast  and  the  recognition  of  what  they  were 
pleased  to  call  ‘ spheres  of  influence.’  Russia  now  returned  to 
the  game,  and  Japan  also  took  a part  in  the  struggle.  From 
the  middle  of  1898  a lull  has  occurred,  which  recent  events, 
however,  have  disturbed  and  proved  that  the  Far  Eastern 
problem  is  far  from  settled.  It  would  certainly  have  surprised 
men  who  were  living  at  the  beginning  of  this  dying  century  if 
they  had  been  told  that  it  would  close  before  the  Grand  Turk 
was  driven  out  of  Europe,  and  yet  the  destinies  of  Eastern 
Asia  are  even  now  far  from  being  determined.  The  problems 
which  rise  round  the  future  of  the  Celestial  Empire  are  neither 
less  grave  nor  less  complicated  now  than  they  ever  were. 
Although  China  is  infinitely  less  heterogeneous  than  Turkey, 
she  runs  the  same  dangers  from  internal  disturbance ; for  she 
is  governed  by  a foreign  dynasty  and  honeycombed  by  secret 
societies.  The  Central  Government  is  feeble  and  without 
cohesion.  On  the  other  hand,  the  rivalry  which  exists  between 
the  European  Powers,  to  whom  should  be  added  the  United 
States  and  Japan,  is  not  less  active  in  the  East  than  it  is  in 
the  West  of  Asia.  The  only,  but  still  enormous,  result  which 
has  been  more  or  less  definitely  obtained  consequent  upon  the 
events  of  the  last  five  years — the  end  of  the  isolation  from 
Europe  in  which  China  has  hitherto  existed,  and  her  being 
brought  for  the  first  time  since  the  beginning  of  her  history 
into  contact  with  a civilization  which  has  developed  quite  in 
dependently  of  her  own — creates  a situation  of  the  intensest 
interest.  If  the  lack  of  military  qualities  among  the  Chinese 
and  the  insufficiency  in  numbers  of  the  Japanese  renders  the 
Yellow  Peril,  comparatively  speaking,  little  to  be  feared  from 
the  war  side  of  the  question,  many  people,  and  among  them 
the  most  enterprising  representatives  of  European  civilization, 
the  Americans  and  Australians,  are  greatly  exercised  over  the 

186 


CHINA 


matter  from  the  economic  point  of  view.  It  would,  however, 
be  presumptuous  to  attempt  to  prophesy  what  would  be  the 
consequences  of  the  dissolution  of  the  Chinese  Empire 
through  internal  disorder,  or  of  its  partition  amongst  the 
Powers  in  consequence  of  an  international  treaty,  or  after 
a war  which  would  be  sure  to  become  universal,  or  even  of  the 
reawakening  of  this  oldest  State  in  the  world  by  the  introduction 
of  Western  ideas  and  methods,  or  finally  of  a struggle  between 
the  White  and  the  Yellow  races;  but  it  is  comparatively  easy, 
now  that  the  question  poses  itself  for  the  first  time,  to  deter- 
mine its  multiple  elements,  to  study  the  relative  position  of 
its  diverse  factors,  the  near  prospect  of  their  action,  and  the 
situation  of  the  patient  round  whose  sick-bed  eagerly  press 
the  many  doctors  and  heirs  of  so  wealthy  an  invalid  as  China. 


CHAPTER  II 


THE  CAPITAL  OF  CHINA 

The  coasts  of  Pe-chi-li  and  the  mouth  of  the  Pei-ho — Ta-ku  and  Tien-tsin — 
From  Tien-tsin  to  Peking  by  rail — Peking ; the  Forbidden,  Imperial, 
Tatar  and  Chinese  cities ; the  walls,  streets,  houses,  shops  and  monu- 
ments— Behaviour  of  the  natives  towards  foreigners — Decadence  of 
the  capital  and  of  the  whole  Empire. 

If  one  enters  China  from  Eastern  Siberia  by  the  Gulf  of 
Pe-chi-li  after  a long  voyage  round  the  Korean  Peninsula, 
the  first  impression  of  the  Celestial  Empire  is  distinctly  un- 
attractive. The  contrast  between  the  shallow  waters  where 
the  vessel  casts  anchor,  some  miles  distant  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Pei-ho,  and  the  noble  port  of  Vladivostok,  or  the 
enchanting  Bay  of  Nagasaki,  with  its  verdant  shores  and 
blue  waters,  enlivened  by  the  picturesque  sails  of  the  fishing- 
junks,  is,  to  say  the  least,  extremely  depressing. 

Nearly  all  the  ports  of  the  Celestial  Empire  are  thus  formed, 
and  can  only  be  entered  during  a few  hours  of  the  day.  Even 
the  mouth  of  the  great  Blue  River  is  encumbered  with  shoals, 
and  its  famous  rival,  the  Yellow  River,  in  its  lower  basin, 
is  divided  up  into  such  a multitude  of  channels  that  meander 
through  the  marshy  lands  as  to  interrupt  all  direct  navigation 
from  the  sea.  The  Gulf  of  Pe-chi-li,  which  may  be  described 
as  the  port  of  Peking,  although  situated  closer  to  the  Equator 
than  the  Bay  of  Naples,  or  the  mouth  of  the  Tagus,  seems, 
with  its  choked-up  estuaries,  its  storm-beaten  shores,  its  fogs 
and  icy  coat  in  winter,  thoroughly  typical  of  China  and  her 
traditional  inhospitality,  and  her  eagerness  rather  to  repulse 
than  to  invite  the  stranger  within  her  gates.  From  the 
anchorage  outside  the  bar  it  is  difficult  to  discern  the  low- 
lying  coast ; and  the  first  objects  to  attract  attention  are  mud 
forts,  mud  houses  in  mud  villages,  and  mud  heaps  marking  the 

i88 


CHINA 


graves  in  the  cemeteries.  This  uninviting  place  is  Ta-ku, 
beyond  which,  a little  higher  up,  at  Tang-ku,  the  Pei-ho 
ceases  to  be  navigable  for  vessels  of  any  tonnage.  On  landing, 
a surprise  awaits  you — the  railway.  Commenced  by  Li  Hung- 
chang,  for  the  purpose  of  transporting  the  coal  from  his 
mines  at  Kaiping,  a few  miles  to  the  north  east,  branches 
have  been  added,  and  since  the  summer  of  1897  it  takes 
the  traveller  to  Peking  via  Tien-tsin.  An  hour  and  a half 
after  leaving  Tang-ku,  I alighted  at  the  former  town  amid  a 
mob  of  noisy  coolies,  who  pounced  upon  me  and  my  luggage. 
We  crossed  the  Pei-ho  in  a sampang  instead  of  the  ordinary 
ferry-boat  which  conveys  the  Celestials,  packed  together  like 
sardines  in  a box,  and  stuck,  apparently  immovably,  in  the 
most  extraordinary  postures.  From  the  landing-place,  we  were 
trotted  in  a jinrikisha  drawn  by  a Chinaman  through  the  Rue 
de  France,  up  Victoria  Road  to  the  Astor  House,  an  American 
hotel  kept  by  a German ; opposite  it  is  a garden,  over  which 
a white  flag  with  a crimson  circle  in  its  centre,  the  emblem 
of  the  Rising  Sun,  announces  that  the  garden  and  the  house 
belong  to  the  Japanese  Consul.  Thus  was  I first  initiated  to 
the  cosmopolitanism  of  a foreign  concession  in  the  Far  East. 

Tien  tsin  is  the  biggest  open  port  in  North  China  and  the 
third  in  rank  in  point  of  activity  and  commerce  in  the  whole 
CBestial  Empire.  It  is,  moreover,  an  immense  Chinese  city 
of  nearly  a million  inhabitants,  but  its  European  concession  is 
very  inferior  to  that  of  Shanghai,  and  as  a native  city  it  is 
of  little  interest  in  comparison  with  Peking,  Canton  and  many 
other  towns.  It  is  from  here  that  travellers  used,  in  former 
times,  to  begin  the  disagreeable  journey  to  the  capital,  either 
on  horseback  or  by  junk  up  the  Pei-ho.  The  river  route 
was  usually  performed  partly  by  sail  and  partly  by  oar,  but 
occasionally  the  boat  had  to  be  towed  by  men.  The  junks 
took  two  or  three  days  to  ascend  the  sinuous  course  of  the 
river.  Sometimes,  however,  when  the  wind  was  to  the  north, 
and  the  shoals  numerous,  the  journey  occupied  from  four  to 
five  days  before  Peking  was  reached.  Now  the  daily  express, 
which  speeds  along  at  the  rate  of  twenty  miles  an  hour,  takes 
three  hours  and  fifty-three  minutes  to  cover  the  ground  which 
separates  Tien-tsin  from  the  station  at  Peking. 

The  country  through  which  it  passes  is  very  flat,  and  it  is 
only  just  before  arriving  at  its  terminus  that  the  blue  outline 
of  some  rather  high  hills  come  into  sight  towards  the  north- 

TS9 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


east.  In  the  month  of  September,  when  the  rains  are  over 
and  are  replaced  by  a drought  that  lasts  until  the  end  of 
winter,  the  environs  of  Tien-tsin,  including  the  cemetery,  are 
entirely  under  water,  and  as  we  looked  from  the  train  window, 
we  could  see  a coffin  floating  about,  and  another  like  gruesome 
object  stuck  on  the  embankment  of  the  line,  which  led  us  to 
reflect  that,  though  the  Chinese  make  such  a fuss  over  their 
ancestors,  they  apparently  care  very  little  for  their  graves.  The 
inundation  at  first  stretched  as  far  as  the  eye  could  see. 
Presently  the  land  began  to  peep  out.  If  you  expect  to  find 
the  soil  from  which  the  waters  have  just  retired  uncultivated, 
it  will  only  be  an  evident  proof  that  you  know  very  little 
about  the  indefatigable  industry  of  the  Chinese  agriculturist, 
and  the  great  care  and  skill  which  he  brings  to  his  task.  All 
that  emerges  has  already  been  carefully  sown,  even  down  to 
the  very  brink  of  the  water,  and  at  a few  steps  from  the 
limits  of  the  inundation,  the  future  harvest  which  has  sprang 
up  under  the  hot  September  sun  from  the  moist  but  rich 
soil  begins  to  make  its  appearance.  The  mud  villages  now 
succeed  each  other  rapidly,  and  presently  the  traveller  reaches 
an  admirably  cultivated  country  where  not  an  hich  of  soil  is 
wasted,  and  where  the  wheat  and  sorghum  fields  are  alternated 
by  kitchen  gardens  and  orchards. 

The  temporary  station  at  Peking,  built  of  planks  and 
galvanized  iron,  stands  in  the  midst  of  this  landscape.  Very 
little  is  to  be  seen  of  the  high  walls  of  the  city,  which  are 
almost  entirely  hidden  by  trees,  and  by  a slight  rising  in  the 
land.  Nothing  indicates  that  the  gates  of  the  capital  of  the 
oldest  Empire  in  the  world  are  so  near.  In  order  to  traverse 
the  mile  which  separates  the  station  from  the  entrance  to 
Peking,  it  is  necessarj’  to  exchange  the  most  highly  perfected 
of  human  conveyance  for  the  most  barbaric.  The  Chinese 
are  unwilling  that  the  stranger  should  dispense,  in  order  to 
enter  their  most  holy  capital,  with  a thorough  jolting  in  their 
national  carriage,  unto  which  the  Siberian  tarantass  may  be 
compared  as  the  most  luxurious  of  vehicles.  Two  enormous 
wheels,  covered  with  iron  and  garnished  with  a triple  row 
of  nails,  support  this  shapeless  waggon,  which  is  protected  by 
a blue  awning,  and  is  dragged  along  by  two  mules  harnessed 
one  in  front  of  the  other.  Whilst  the  driver  sits  in  front 
under  the  awning,  the  hapless  traveller  has  to  accommodate 
himself  on  the  floor,  with  his  legs  stretched  out  in  front  of  him. 

190 


CHINA 


Now  begins  the  torture,  for  one  is  literalty  jolted  about  against 
the  wooden  sides  of  the  cart  like  a pill  in  a box.  Presently  the 
wheel  goes  over  a huge  stone,  only  to  fall  into  a deep  hole,  or 
stick  in  a rut.  Meanwhile,  the  diabolical  waggon  behaves  in  a 
most  abominable  manner,  to  the  unutterable  agony  of  its 
wretched  inmate,  who  lives  in  terror  of  being  either  precipitated 
into  the  mud,  or  of  having  his  brains  knocked  out  by  the 
collapse  of  the  whole  structure.  Of  this  latter  catastrophe 
there  is  little  or  no  likelihood,  for  about  the  only  good  quality 
this  appalling  conveyance  can  boast  of  is  solidity  : nothing 
could  break  it.  About  twenty  minutes  after  leaving  the  station 
a high  battlemented  wall,  surrounded  by  a mud-filled  moat,  is 
reached.  Next,  you  pass  over  a bridge,  beyond  which  a gate 
admits  into  a sort  of  half-moon  surrounded  by  walls,  beyond 
which  is  yet  another  gate  admitting  to  the  city  proper,  where, 
after  another  hour’s  jolting,  the  unhappy  traveller  alights  at  a 
hotel  in  Legation  Street  kept  by  a Frenchman. 

Although  not  the  most  ancient  city  in  the  Celestial  Empire, 
Peking  is  an  epitome  of  the  rest  of  China,  together  with  its 
ancient  civilization  and  its  present  stagnation  and  decadence. 
It  belongs  to  a very  different  type  from  the  cities  of  Europe,  or 
even  of  the  Moslem  w’orld,  and  the  sight  of  its  immense  wall 
and  successive  enclosures,  which  divide  it  into  four  distinct 
parts,  reminds  one  of  Nineveh  or  Babylon.  In  the  centre  is 
the  ‘ Forbidden  ’ or  ‘ Purple  City,’  about  a league  in  length 
from  north  to  south,  and  a quarter  of  a league  in  width,  con- 
taining the  palaces  of  the  Emperor  and  Empress  Dowager, 
and  the  gardens  and  the  residences  of  a swarm  of  parasites 
numbering,  it  is  said,  between  six  or  eight  thousand  persons, 
inclusive  of  guards,  concubines,  eunuchs,  functionaries,  gar- 
deners and  other  attendants  upon  the  Imperial  harem.  The 
only  Europeans  who  are  allowed  to  cross  the  sacred  threshold 
of  the  Purple  City  are  the  members  of  the  Diplomatic  Corps, 
to  whom  the  Emperor  gives  audience  on  New  Year’s  Day, 
as  well  as  since  quite  recently  on  the  occasions  of  their  arrival 
or  taking  leave.  Around  the  Purple  City  extends  the  Imperial 
City,  its  walls  painted  pink,  which  in  its  turn  is  surrounded 
by  the  Tatar  City,  a rectangle  of  4 miles  in  length,  by  3 
miles  in  width,  whose  sides  face  the  cardinal  points.  Its 
colossal  walls  are  50  feet  high,  and  at  their  summit  are 
50  feet  wide.  Their  external  fronts  consist  of  two  strong 
brick  walls,  rising  from  a substructure  of  stone.  The  interior 

191 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


is  filled  up  with  earth,  and  the  summit,  covered  with  flagstones, 
forms  a walk  bordered  by  embattled  stone  parapets.  Bastions 
project  outwards,  and  huge  pavilions  built  of  brick,  pierced 
with  many  balastraria,  and  coated  with  highly  varnished 
coloured  tiles,  ornament  its  four  corners  and  gates.  It  rises 
only  99  feet  above  the  ground,  beyond  which  height  it  is 
never  allowed  to  build,  lest  the  flight  of  the  good  spirits  might 
be  inconvenienced  thereby.  This  magnificent  rampart,  which 
to  the  north-east  and  to  the  west  rises  abruptly  from  the  midst 
of  the  country,  Peking  having  no  suburbs,  presents  a most  im- 
posing aspect ; and  it  is  not  less  impressive  when  beheld  from 
any  one  of  the  half-moons,  which  are  very  vast,  and  are  built 
before  the  various  gates,  but  which,  owing  to  the  height  of  the 
embattled  walls  which  surround  them  on  all  sides,  each  of 
which  is  surmounted  by  a massive  brick  pavilion,  look  like 
wells. 

To  the  south  of  the  Tatar  City  is  a group  of  less  imposing 
walls  surrounding  the  lengthy  rectangle  which  includes  the 
Chinese  City,  the  commercial  part  of  Peking.  The  broad 
street  that  intersects  it  from  north  to  south,  and  cuts  it  into 
two  equal  parts,  especially  close  to  the  Tsieng-Men  Gate,  by 
which  you  pass  into  the  Tatar  City,  is  the  most  animated 
artery  of  the  city.  In  the  central  walk,  paved  with  magnificent 
flag  stones,  not  one  of  which  is  now  in  its  right  place,  and 
which  apparently  only  serve  as  stumbling-blocks  to  pedestrians, 
and  are  covered  with  mud  a foot  deep  in  summer,  and  by  a 
pestilential  dust  in  winter,  circulate  in  the  utmost  confusion 
the  ever-present  waggons,  already  described,  palanquins,  sedan- 
chairs,  whose  colours  vary  with  the  dignity  of  the  owner,  chairs 
drawn  by  mules,  men  riding  on  small  Manchurian  ponies, 
indefatigable  asses,  which  are  the  best  means  of  locomotion  in 
the  place,  enormous  one  wheeled  barrows,  coolies  struggling 
under  the  burden  of  huge  baskets  filled  with  fruit,  vegetables, 
and  other  comestibles,  fixed  to  the  end  of  a very  long  pole 
slung  across  their  shoulders — all  this  busy  world  bustles  along, 
filling  the  air  with  shouts  and  cries  of  every  kind,  from  the 
croaking  of  the  porters  to  the  stentorian  shouts  of  the  waggoners. 
Occasionally  a long  string  of  huge  two  humped  camels,  a cord 
running  from  the  nostrils  of  one  animal  to  the  tail  of  the  other, 
and  led  by  a Mongolian  urchin,  adds  to  the  incredible  con- 
fusion. All  this  crowd,  together  with  beasts  and  vehicles,  has 
to  content  itself  with  what,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  would 

192 


CHINA 


be  a very  broad  roadway,  if  at  least  a third  of  it  were  not  en- 
cumbered by  a sort  of  permanent  open-air  fair,  carried  on  in 
rows  of  booths,  some  of  which  are  used  as  restaurants,  others 
as  shops  of  every  description.  These  booths  turn  their  backs 
to  the  middle  of  the  street,  and  thus  hide  the  line  of  shops 
beyond,  of  which,  from  the  centre  of  the  road,  you  can  only 
perceive  the  enormous  and  innumerable  sign-boards  hanging 
from  a veritable  forest  of  gaily-painted  poles. 

Beyond  the  Tsieng-Men  Gate  is  situated  the  Beggars’  Bridge, 
always  thronged  by  groups  of  wretches  clamouring  for  alms 
and  ostentatiously  displaying  the  most  appalling  mutilations, 
with  all  kinds  of  loathsome  diseases  added  to  their  sordid 
misery  to  excite  compassion.  The  narrow  side-walks,  which 
are  bordered  on  the  one  hand  by  booths,  and  on  the  other  by 
big  shops,  are  filled  by  a motley  gathering  of  small  shop- 
keepers, each  plying  his  business  in  the  open  air — barbers, 
hair-dressers,  and  fortune-tellers,  among  whom  the  crowd  has 
no  little  difficulty  in  threading  its  way.  Here  you  see  men  in 
light-blue  blouses,  with  long  pigtails  ; Chinese  ladies  with  their 
hair  dragged  back  magpie-tail  fashion,  who  balance  themselves 
painfully  as  they  go  along  on  their  tiny  deformed  feet ; Tatar 
women,  whose  hair  is  puffed  out  on  each  side  of  their  faces,  and 
who,  like  their  Chinese  sisters,  stick  a big  flower  behind  their 
ears.  Not  being  crippled  by  bound  feet,  like  their  less  fortunate 
Chinese  sisters,  these  women  strut  along  with  as  firm  a step  as 
their  high-heeled  clogs  will  permit.  Their  faces  are  bedaubed 
with  rice-flour,  and  their  cheeks  painted  an  alarmingly  bright 
red.  Children  with  their  heads  shaved  in  the  most  comical 
manner,  dotted  about  with  little  tufts,  that  have  a very  funny 
appearance,  being  cut  according  to  the  taste  or  caprice  of 
their  parents,  also  run  about.  Among  the  well-clad  children  of 
a better  class  are  others,  stark-naked,  looking  for  all  the  world 
like  small  animated  bronzes,  so  dark  and  warm-coloured  is 
their  polished  skin.  In  order  to  avoid  being  mobbed,  one 
has  occasionally  to  seek  refuge  in  a shop,  which  usually  opens 
on  to  the  street,  and  is  without  windows.  In  the  back  the 
shopkeepers  are  peacefully  seated  behind  their  counters  smoking 
long  pipes,  whilst  exhibiting  their  goods  and  listening  to  the 
bargainings  of  their  customers.  These  shops  are  always  very 
clean,  and  the  goods  are  arranged  with  great  order  and  even 
considerable  taste.  A bowl  with  goldfish,  or  a cage  full  of 
birds,  adds  not  a little  to  the  charm  and  peacefulness  of  the 

193  o 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 

scene,  which  is  peculiarly  refreshing  after  the  noise  and  dirt  of 
the  streets. 

All  the  great  arteries  of  Peking  are  equally  filthy  and  closely 
resemble  each  other,  excepting  that  not  one  of  them  can  equal, 
either  in  the  size  of  the  shops  or  wealth  of  their  contents, 
the  famous  High  Street  that  leads  to  the  Tsieng-Men  Gate. 
In  summer,  after  the  rains,  a coating  of  mud  some  two  feet 
and  a half  deep  covers  both  road  and  footpath,  which  when 
the  weather  dries  again  is  converted  into  thick  clouds  of 
dust.  The  sideways,  always  lower  than  the  central  road,  are 
usually  filled  by  pools  of  green  water,  whence  arises  the  most 
horrible  stench  of  decayed  vegetables  and  rotting  carcases  of 
animals,  in  addition  to  the  accumulated  offal  of  the  neigh- 
bouring houses.  The  wonder  of  it  all  is  that  the  entire  popu- 
lation of  Peking  has  not  long  since  been  swept  away  by  some 
appalling  epidemic. 

Leaving  aside  the  few  broad  streets,  one  frequently  comes 
across  immense  open  spaces,  whose  centres  are  generally 
occupied  by  a huge  dunghill.  The  narrow  little  streets  that 
branch  out  in  all  directions  can  be  divided  into  two  classes — 
those  which  border  on  the  three  or  four  principal  commercial 
thoroughfares,  which,  like  them,  are  lined  with  shops,  but  are 
scarcely  broad  enough  to  allow  of  the  passage  of  a single  cart, 
although  they  are  thronged  from  morning  to  night  by  a seething, 
noisy  crowd ; and  the  silent  and  deadly  dull  private  streets, 
where  the  dwelling-houses  are  to  be  found.  On  either  side 
runs  a gray  wall,  whose  monotony  is  broken  at  intervals  by 
a series  of  shabby  little  doors.  If  any  one  of  these  happens 
to  be  open,  one  can  only  perceive  from  the  street  a small 
courtyard  a few  feet  square,  and  another  dead  wall,  beyond 
which  is  the  inner  courtyard,  shut  off  from  all  observation, 
and  on  which  open  all  the  windows  of  these  singular  dwellings, 
not  one  of  which  is  more  than  one  story  high,  and  always 
protected  by  a gray  double-tiled  roof,  usually  ornamented  at 
the  four  corners  by  some  grotesque  stone  beast  or  other,  but 
never  turned  up  at  the  ends  as  are  invariably  those  of  the 
temples  and  the  monuments.  There  is  no  movement  whatever 
in  these  streets.  A few  children  play  before  the  doors,  a dog 
or  so  strays  about  in  the  road,  and  now  and  again  a coolie  or 
an  itinerant  merchant,  with  two  baskets  suspended  from  a pole 
across  his  shoulders,  breaks  the  silence  by  a shrill  cry ; some- 
times a donkey  or  a cart  passes  along  but  fails  to  enliven  the 

194 


CHINA 


deadly  quiet  of  the  street,  which  is  so  still  and  monotonous 
that  one  might  almost  imagine  one’s  self  in  a village  instead  of 
in  one  of  the  most  populous  cities  in  the  world. 

The  scene  changes  entirely  when  Peking  is  seen  from  the 
heights  of  the  walls  which  form  the  only  agreeable  promenade 
in  the  capital,  to  whose  summits  ascends  neither  the  mud  nor 
the  stench  of  this  dirtiest  of  cities.  The  eye  wanders  pleasantly 
over  a forest  of  fine  trees,  for  every  house  has  one  or  two  in 
its  courtyard,  and  barely  a glimpse  of  the  offensive  streets  is 
to  be  had  : only  the  gray  roofs  of  the  little  houses  ; and  thus 
Peking  looks  for  all  the  world  like  an  immense  park,  from 
whose  midst  rise  the  yellow  roofs  of  the  Imperial  Palace,  and 
to  the  northern  extremity  of  the  city,  a wooded  height  called 
the  Coal  Mountain,  surmounted  by  a pagoda. 

As  to  monuments,  there  are  very  few  in  Peking  worth  the 
seeing,  and  into  these  foreigners  are  never  allowed  to  enter. 
Twenty-five  or  thirty  years  ago  visitors  were  admitted  into  a 
great  number  of  the  temples : that  of  Heaven,  which  is  now 
being  restored,  and  where  the  Emperor  goes  annually  to  make 
a sacrifice,  and  the  Temples  of  the  Sun,  the  Moon,  and  of 
Agriculture,  and  they  were  even  allowed  to  peep  into  the 
Imperial  Gardens ; but  since  the  entry  of  the  Anglo-French 
troops  into  Peking,  in  i860,  the  Chinese  have  been  very 
reticent  with  respect  to  their  monuments,  doubtless  a conse- 
quence of  the  salutary  lesson  they  then  received,  which  they 
are  philosophical  enough  to  endeavour  to  forget,  as  all  wise 
folk  should  do  things  that  wound  their  pride.  To-day  the 
people  affect  to  believe  the  official  story  invented  on  that 
occasion  to  save  appearances,  wherein  it  was  stated  that  the 
Emperor  Hien-feng,  instead  of  fleeing  before  the  allies, 
merely  went  on  a hunting  excursion  in  his  park  at  Johol  in 
Mongolia.  Their  usual  insolence  towards  foreigners  had  com- 
pletely returned,  to  be  modified,  however,  so  soon  as  they  heard 
of  the  successes  of  the  Japanese,  and  they  were  seized  with 
absolute  terror  at  the  prospect  of  beholding  the  Mikado’s 
army  marching  through  their  gates. 

When  I was  in  Peking  in  the  autumn  of  1897  Europeans 
were  very  rarely  insulted  in  the  streets.  Before  the  War  it  was 
otherwise,  and  I myself,  like  many  another,  did  not  escape  the 
impertinence  of  the  Chinese  at  Canton.  All  the  same,  they  took 
good  care  to  close  their  monuments  to  the  inspection  of  the 
‘ foreign  devils,’  and  the  only  temple  now  open  for  our  inspec- 

195  o 2 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


tion  is  that  of  Confucius,  an  immense  but  rather  common- 
place hall  with  a steep  roof  supported  on  pillars  painted  a vivid 
red.  Foreigners  are  also  permitted  to  visit  the  place  where 
the  literati  undergo  their  examinations.  It  consists  of  some 
thousands  of  little  cells  lining  several  long,  open  corridors, 
wherein  the  unfortunate  candidates  for  law  and  medicine  are 
shut  for  several  days  while  they  answer  the  questions  set  them. 
Then  there  is  the  old  Observatory,  wherein  are  two  series  of 
highly  useful  instruments.  The  first  dates  from  the  time  of 
the  Mongol  Dynasty  in  the  thirteenth  century,  and  lies  scattered 
half  buried  among  the  weeds  at  the  bottom  of  the  courtyard ; 
the  second  series  is  less  antiquated,  having  been  made  under 
the  direction  of  the  Jesuit  Verbiest,  who  was  astronomer  to  the 
Emperor  of  China  in  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
They  art  shown  on  the  walls.  After  seeing  these  thoroughly 
up-to-datt  astronomical  instruments,  one  has  visited  all  there 
is  to  be  seen  in  the  Imperial  city  of  Peking. 

It  must  be  confessed,  however,  that  walking  in  the  streets,  or 
at  the  foot  or  on  top  of  the  enormous  walls,  is  far  more  inter- 
esting and  instructive  than  visiting  temples  and  palaces.  At 
every  step  the  observer  is  struck  with  the  activity  and  energy  of 
the  Chinese  people  in  contradistinction  to  the  systematic  stag- 
nation of  its  governing  classes,  and  he  soon  comes  to  the  con- 
clusion that  China  is  in  a state  of  decadence  strongly  resembling 
in  many  details  that  of  the  Roman  Empire  at  the  time  of  the 
invasions  of  the  Barbarians.  This  erstwhile  magnificent  capital 
is  now  only  the  shadow  of  its  former  self.  The  number  of  its 
inhabitants,  700,000  to  800,000,  is  gradually  decreasing,  and 
many  houses  are  already  in  ruins.  Some  of  the  best  streets, 
which  must  at  one  time  have  been  splendidly  paved,  are  now 
almost  impassable,  the  result  of  neglect ; drains,  which  at  one 
time  were  covered  in,  now  run  open  through  the  streets,  and 
are  choked  up  by  nameless  deposits  which  are  never  removed, 
and  even  immense  blocks  of  the  celebrated  walls  are  occasion- 
ally allowed  to  crumble  to  ruin.  Now  and  again  an  effort  to 
repair  them  is  started,  but  as  half  the  money  intended  for  the 
work  usually  remains  in  the  hands  of  the  officials  and  con- 
tractors it  is  never  well  done,  great  care  being  taken  not  to 
do  the  repairs  thoroughly,  for  fear  of  preventing  fresh  disaster 
and  losing  a chance  to  do  it  all  over  again.  On  the  other  hand, 
on  the  rare  occasions  when  the  F.mperor  betakes  himself  and 
his  court  to  some  summer  residence  or  other,  or  to  make  a 

196 


CHINA 


sacrifice  at  one  of  the  temples,  things  are  furbished  up  a bit, 
to  make  him  believe  that  his  capital  is  well  looked  after.  The 
ruts  and  the  mud-heaps  in  the  streets  through  which  the  pro- 
cession passes  are  hidden  under  a thick  coating  of  sand,  and 
everything  likely  to  offend  the  eye  of  the  Son  of  Heaven  is 
covered  over ; even  the  miserable  booths  which  encumber  the 
streets  are  removed,  and  the  half-moons  in  the  rampart  have 
their  walls  painted  white,  but  only  so  high  as  the  Imperial 
eyes  may  be  lifted  as  His  Celestial  Majesty  passes  by,  lolling 
back  indolently  in  his  magnificent  palanquin. 


197 


CHAPTER  III 


THE  COUNTRY  IN  THE  NEIGHBOURHOOD  OF  PEKING  — NU- 
MEROUS SIGNS  OF  THE  DECLINE  OF  THE  EMPIRE 

From  Peking  to  the  Ming  Tombs  and  the  Great  Wall  of  China — The 
temples  in  the  hills — Striking  neglect  of  monuments  and  public  works 
— Remains  of  ancient  and  well-paved  highroads,  now  replaced  by 
wretched  ones,  which  are  only  temporarily  repaired  when  the  Emperor 
or  the  /.mpress  Dowager  passes — The  manner  in  which  useful  works 
are  negh  cted  in  China,  and  her  treasure  wasted. 

A TOUR  in  the  environs  of  Peking,  to  the  Great  Wall  and  to 
some  of  the  temples  built  on  the  hills  to  the  west  of  the  town, 
confirms  the  bad  impressions  received  in  the  city.  This  excur- 
sion occupies  between  three  and  four  days,  and  can  be  performed 
with  relative  comfort,  and  in  ordinary  times  without  the  least 
danger.  A ‘ boy,’  that  is  to  say,  a domestic  servant  — a 
combination  of  guide,  interpreter,  valet  and  cook,  and  who  is 
often,  by  the  way,  a very  expert  disciple  of  Vatel — a donkey  and 
donkey-boy,  a waggon,  drawn  by  two  mules,  and  a waggoner, 
are  the  staff  necessary  for  this  journey,  which  is  usually  per- 
formed partly  on  foot  and  partly  on  donkey-back.  This  suite 
may  be  considered  somewhat  numerous,  but  no  other  human 
being  but  his  own  master  would  get  a Chinese  donkey  to  budge 
a step  forward,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  mules.  As 
to  the  ‘ boy,’  he  is  the  indispensable  party  into  whose  hands 
you  must  trust  yourself  absolutely,  even  to  the  extent  of 
handing  over  your  purse,  so  that  he  may  settle  your  accounts 
at  the  various  inns  and  give  the  expected  backsheesh  to  the 
servants  or  to  the  guides  and  bonzes  in  the  temples.  Need- 
less to  say,  he  perfectly  understands  how  to  take  care  of  himself 
in  ihe  matter  of  reserving  for  his  own  benefit  the  ‘ squeezee,’  as 
they  say  in  pigeon-English.  All  Europeans  who  travel  in  the 
Far  East  are  obliged  to  have  a retinue,  which  adds  to  their  im- 
portance, and  in  which  every  man  has  his  particular  function 

ig8 


CHINA 

to  fulfil,  and  will  not  undertake  the  least  share  of  his  fellow- 
servants’  work. 

On  leaving  Peking  by  the  Northern  Gate,  one  crosses  a sandy 
and  barren  space,  occupied  in  the  thirteenth  century  by  a part 
of  the  town,  which  has  now  disappeared.  Then  come  some 
outlying  towns,  mainly  inhabited  by  merchants,  succeeded  by 
the  admirably  cultivated  plain  which  extends  from  the  north  of 
Peking  to  the  foot  of  the  hills.  It  is  more  barren  to  the  south, 
and  trees  only  grow  close  to  the  villages,  which  are  invariably 
surrounded  by  groups  of  weeping-willows.  In  this  region  the 
soil  and  the  climate  are  too  dry  to  allow  of  the  cultivation 
of  rice,  but  a crop  of  winter  wheat  is  obtained,  and  I have  seen 
it  sown,  and  even  appearing  above  the  ground,  in  the  month 
of  October.  It  does  not  freeze  in  the  very  dry  earth,  although 
the  thermometer  falls  twenty  degrees,  and  the  snow  is  never 
very  deep.  This  crop  of  wheat  is  harvested  during  ^’^dy. 
Presently  you  see  fields  of  sorghum,  millet,  the  staple  for<l  of 
the  people  in  these  parts,  and  also  of  buckwheat.  On  all  sides 
the  peasantry  are  hard  at  work,  usually  alongside  strong 
waggons,  better  built  than  those  of  the  Siberian  mujiks,  and 
drawn  either  by  two  mules  or  two  horses,  or  sometimes  by 
three  little  donkeys.  In  the  villages  you  can  sometimes  see 
the  grain  thrashed  or  the  long  leaves  of  the  sorghum  being 
bound  in  sheaves,  which  when  dried  are  made  into  mats  and 
screens.  The  women  help  in  the  latter  work,  which  invariably 
takes  place  close  to  their  doors,  for  they  are  never  seen  in 
the  fields.  The  roads  are  generally  very  bad,  but  have  not 
always  been  so.  Many  of  the  bridges  are  still  in  a superb  con- 
dition, although  the  fine  flagstones  with  which  they  are  paved 
are  in  a shocking  condition.  Others,  however,  are  in  absolute 
ruin,  and  the  rivers  which  they  once  spanned  have  conse- 
quently to  be  forded.  Everything  points  to  the  fact  that  we 
are  passing  over  a once  magnificent  highroad,  and  effectively 
it  leads  to  the  Tombs  of  the  Mings,  which  explains  why  it 
was  built  in  such  a sumptuous  manner  by  that  Dynasty,  as 
well  as  the  state  of  abandonment  into  which  it  has  fallen 
since  it  has  come  into  the  hands  of  the  Manchus,  who  de- 
throned the  Mings  in  1644. 

Very  few  places  that  I have  ever  visited  have  produced  upon 
me  a greater  impression  of  grandeur  than  the  amphitheatre 
formed  by  the  lofty  hills  on  whose  last  slopes  stand  the  Tombs 
of  the  thirteen  Emperors  of  the  Ming  Dynasty.  Each  of  these 

199 


THE  AWAKENING  Of  THE  EAST 


monuments  is  formed  of  an  aggregation  of  buildings  shaded  by 
magnificent  trees,  that  present  a striking  contrast  to  the  usual 
gray  barrenness  of  Chinese  hills.  The  broad  road  which  leads 
to  them,  once  paved  but  now  in  ruins,  passes  under  a superb 
triumphal  arch  into  the  silent  valley,  which  seems  deserted, 
although  in  reality  it  is  highly  cultivated ; the  little  villages 
clustering  at  the  foot  of  the  heights,  too,  are,  as  a rule,  difficult 
to  make  out  After  passing  under  numerous  elegant  gateways, 
supported  by  winged  colums,  we  at  length  arrive  at  a gigantic 
alley  of  colossal  monoliths,  representing  figures  of  animals  and 
monsters  alternately  sitting  and  crouching,  and  statues  of 
famous  legislators  and  warriors.  Roads  radiate  towards  each 
of  the  Tombs,  of  which  I only  visited  that  of  the  first  Ming 
Emperor  who  reigned  in  Peking. 

After  having  passed  through  a high  wall  by  a porch  with 
three  badly-kept  gates,  we  crossed  a spacious  courtyard  planted 
with  trees,  and  presently  entered  the  great  hall.  Before  the 
whole  length  of  the  fagade  extends  several  flights  of  marble 
steps  with  exquisitely  sculptured  balustrades.  The  hall  itself  is 
not  less  than  200  feet  long  by  about  80  feet  wide  and  40  feet  in 
height.  It  is  nearly  empty,  and  at  first  you  can  only  perceive 
the  forty  gigantic  wooden  columns,  each  formed  of  the  trunk  of 
a tree,  that  support  the  roof,  and  which  two  men  cannot 
embrace.  These  columns  are  said  to  have  come  from  the  con- 
fines of  Indo-China.  In  the  midst  of  them,  half  hidden  away, 
is  a small  altar,  ornamented  with  a few  commonplace  china 
vases,  which  are  crumbling  to  pieces  and  full  of  dust.  Beyond 
the  altar,  enclosed  in  a sort  of  tabernacle,  is  the  tablet  inscribed 
with  the  deceased  Emperor’s  name  in  three  Chinese  characters. 
His  body  lies  beyond,  at  the  end  of  a gallery  a mile  long, 
which  penetrates  straight  into  the  heart  of  the  hill,  but  is  walled 
up  a short  distance  from  the  entrance,  which  one  reaches 
through  two  courtyards  separated  by  a portico.  From  the  lofty 
tower  that  rises  over  this  entrance,  the  walls  of  which,  by  .the 
way,  are  embellished  with  names  which  numerous  Chinese  and 
a few  Europeans  have  been  vulgar  enough  to  scratch  on  the 
walls  with  the  points  of  their  knives,  the  view  includes  the  whole 
semicircle  of  hills,  as  well  as  all  the  Tombs,  which,  by  reason 
of  the  very  simplicity  of  their  design,  create  an  impression 
of  extreme  grandeur.  Their  erection  must  have  cost  as  great 
an  amount  of  labour  as  that  which  was  bestowed  by  the 
Egyptians  upon  the  sepulchres  of  their  Pharaohs. 

200 


CHINA 


The  Great  Wall  of  China  is  another  colossal  undertaking,  in 
order  to  reach  which  you  take  the  high  road  to  Mongolia  that 
passes  through  the  Pa-ta-ling  Gate  at  the  extremity  of  the  pass 
of  Nan-kow.  This  highroad,  which  for  centuries  has  been 
daily  traversed  by  long  caravans  of  camels,  engaged  in  the 
traffic  between  Mongolia,  Siberia,  and  China,  was  formerly 
paved  with  blocks  of  granite,  of  which  no  trace  is  now  to  be  seen, 
either  on  that  part  of  the  road  in  the  little  town  of  Nan-kow,  or 
in  the  difficult  mountain  pass,  and  the  traveller  may  therefore 
conclude  that  they  have  either  been  used  in  the  construction 
of  houses  or  washed  away  by  some  torrent.  Nan-kow  is  a 
walled  town,  like  almost  all  those  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Peking,  including  the  curious  old  suburb  of  Chao-yung-kwan, 
over  one  of  the  doors  of  which  there  is  an  inscription  in  six 
languages,  one  of  which  has  not  yet  been  deciphered.  Every- 
where on  the  mountain  sides  towers  and  picturesque  ruins  of 
fortifications  manifest  how  great  has  ever  been  the  fear  of  the 
Chinese  of  the  Tatars  and  Mongols,  for  protection  against 
whom  the  Great  Wall  was  built.  It  is  divided  into  two  parts, 
the  inner  and  the  outer  wall,  the  first  of  which  extends  for 
nearly  1,560  miles,  from  Shan-hai-kwan  on  the  Gulf  of  Pe-chi-li 
into  the  Province  of  Kan-su  on  the  upper  Yellow  River. 
Built  two  hundred  years  before  our  era,  needless  to  say,  it 
has  been  often  repaired  and  rebuilt.  Near  the  sea  it  is  con- 
structed of  stone,  but  brick  has  been  used  on  the  inland  portions. 
In  thickness  it  varies  from  16  feet  to  20  feet,  and  is  about  the 
same  in  height,  but  to  the  west  it  is  nothing  like  so  lofty. 

The  inner  wall,  which  dates  from  the  sixth  century,  was 
almost  entirely  reconstructed  by  the  Mings  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  and  is  500  miles  long.  This  is  the  wall  to  be  seen 
from  Pa-ta-ling,  passing  over  the  hill,  and  then  proceeding 
right  and  left  to  climb  in  zigzag  fashion  to  the  very  summit  of 
the  mountains.  It  is  constructed  after  the  model  of  the  walls  of 
Peking,  on  a substructure  of  stone,  with  two  rows  of  brick  battle- 
ments. The  top  is  paved,  and  forms  a roadway  ii  feet  in 
width.  Its  height  varies,  according  to  the  irregularity  of  the 
land,  between  12  feet  and  20  feet,  and  at  about  every  300  feet 
there  are  towers  twice  the  height  of  the  wall,  also  surrounded 
by  bastions  and  battlements.  Although  less  imposing  than  the 
Wall  of  Peking,  the  Great  Wall  of  China  does  not  deserve 
the  flippant  remarks  that  have  been  made  about  it.  Against  an 
enemy  unprovided  with  artillery,  and  horsemen  like  the  Mongols 

201 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


and  Tatars,  it  must  have  presented  a very  serious  obstruction, 
and  if  occasionally  they  have  been  able  to  scale  it,  it  has 
generally  resisted  every  attempt  at  invasion.  Although  it  has  not 
been  used  under  the  present  Dynasty,  which  is  of  Tatar  origin, 
it  has  remained,  thanks  to  the  care  bestowed  upon  it  in 
former  times,  one  of  the  best  preserved  monuments  in  China. 

It  is  otherwise  with  the  greater  number  of  the  temples 
scattered  over  the  hills,  which  stand  amidst  groups  of  magni- 
ficent trees,  whose  green  foliage  contrasts  so  pleasantly  with 
the  gray,  barren  hills  which  the  Chinese,  like  all  other  peoples 
of  the  Far  East,  never  cultivate.  Visitors  are  pleasantly  re- 
ceived in  the  temples  near  Peking,  some  of  which  are  used 
as  summer  residences  by  European  diplomatists  tired  of  being 
shut  up  in  the  city,  whose  pestilential  miasmas  occasionally 
reach  even  their  houses,  although  they  are  surrounded  by 
parks.  Some  of  them  are  only  wooden  structures,  with  dwell- 
ings for  the  bonzes  surrounding  courtyards  on  to  which  open 
the  various  sanctuaries.  The  use  of  wood  in  the  Far  East  for 
building  purposes  does  not  prevent  a certain  display  of  magnifi- 
cence and  art,  and  the  Japanese  temples  at  Nikko  and  many 
other  places  are  marvels  of  richness  and  beauty,  although  they 
are  entirely  built  of  wood.  Unfortunately,  unless  they  are  very 
carefully  looked  after,  they  are  naturally  apt  to  deteiiorate  much 
quicker  than  stone  buildings.  Needless  to  say,  the  Chinese 
temples  are  in  a very  dilapidated  condition.  I cannot  say  that 
I was  impressed  by  the  amazing  collection  of  Buddhas,  some 
life-size,  others  colossal,  some  gilded  and  others  painted,  no 
two  of  which  are  said  to  be  exactly  alike ; or  by  the  crowd  of 
horrible  monsters  with  ferocious  faces  and  abominable  gestures 
who  guard  the  entrances  to  these  temples.  They  one  and  all 
filled  me  rather  with  disgust  than  with  the  slightest  impression 
of  awe.  This  degenerate  Buddhism  is  very  different  from  that 
which  exists  in  Ceylon,  and  among  certain  Japanese  sects. 
The  only  traces  of  the  original  character  of  the  religion,  or  at 
any  rate  of  the  land  from  which  it  sprang,  are  to  be  found  in 
the  lovely  stone  pagoda  of  the  Pi-Yuen-Sse,  whose  style  is 
pure  Hindu,  and  contains  some  exquisite  bas-reliefs  repre- 
senting scenes  in  the  lives  of  Sakyamuni  and  his  saints,  or, 
again,  in  the  even  more  beautiful  sculpture  to  be  admired  in 
the  Temple  of  the  Yellow  Tower. 

The  Summer  Palace,  which,  by  the  way,  was  not  a genuine 
Chinese  building,  but  erected  under  the  direction  of  the  Jesuits 

202 


CHINA 


in  the  eighteenth  century  in  the  style  of  Versailles,  has  not 
been  rebuilt  since  its  destruction  by  the  Allies  in  i860,  and  all 
access  to  its  ruins  has  been  prohibited.  Not  far  distant  is  the 
summer  residence  of  the  Empress  Dowager,  surrounded  by 
magnificent  gardens.  The  road  which  leads  to  it  is  well  kept 
For  the  matter  of  that,  as  the  Empress  was  about  to  make  a pil- 
grimage to  a neighbouring  shrine  at  the  time  I passed  that  way, 
all  the  roads  were  being  tinkered  up  for  her  advent.  Hundreds 
of  coolies  were  working  under  the  direction  of  mandarins  of  the 
second  or  inferior  rank,  with  the  white  or  gold  button,  who 
were  dashing  on  horseback  hither  and  thither,  giving  orders 
and  generally  superintending  so  that  all  irregularities  were 
rapidly  disappearing  under  cartloads  of  sand.  These  costly 
repairs  were,  however,  only  ephemeral. 

The  Chinese  Government  never  hesitates  about  wasting 
money  on  trivialities.  On  one  occasion,  a river  happening  to 
upset  certain  arrangements  in  one  of  the  Imperial  gardens, 
it  was,  at  enormous  cost,  drained  from  its  bed,  and  allowed 
to  inundate  and  ruin  hundreds  of  farms  belonging  to  the 
unfortunate  peasants.  On  another  occasion,  with  a view  to 
worthily  celebrating  the  sixtieth  birthday  of  the  Dowager 
Empress,  the  money  intended  for  the  reorganization  of  the 
army  in  Pe-chi-li  was  squandered  on  processions,  illuminations, 
and  fireworks.  Whenever  money  is  needed  for  anything  but 
the  gratification  of  the  greed  and  vanity  of  the  Court  officials,  it  is 
never  forthcoming ; and  every  traveller  who  has  been  to  China 
will  corroborate  what  I have  said  concerning  not  only  the 
neighbourhood  of  Peking,  but  also  of  Canton  and  Shanghai. 
The  highroads  have  practically  ceased  to  exist,  and  the  bridges 
are  rapidly  crumbling  to  ruin.  The  Imperial  canal,  one  of  the 
most  magnificent  works  of  past  generations,  which  goes  from 
Hang-Chow  to  Tien-tsin,  a distance  of  over  940  miles,  and 
unites  the  Blue,  the  Yellow,  and  the  Pei-ho  Rivers,  and  also 
the  capitals  of  the  middle  provinces,  whence  are  obtained  the 
best  provisions,  is  now  at  many  points  choked  up  with  sand  and 
stones,  and  in  others  it  is  only  a few  inches  deep,  and  can  only 
be  used  for  local  traffic.  China  of  to-day  is  but  a shadow  of 
what  she  has  been,  for  her  sole  object  in  existence  is  to  deceive, 
and  her  administration  is  rotien  to  the  core.  This  decadence 
dates  centuries  back,  but  it  culminated  five  years  ago,  when  an 
Empire  of  400,000,000  inhabitants  was  obliged  to  humble  itself 
to  a nation  ten  times  its  inferior  in  population  and  resources. 

203 


CHAPTER  IV 


THE  LITERARY  AND  MANDARIN  CLASS — PRINCIPAL  CAUSES  OF 
THE  DECADENCE  OF  THE  EMPIRE 

The  literati  or  governing  class — How  it  is  recruited  from  the  mass  of  the 
people  through  examinations — Bachelors,  Masters  of  Arts  and  Doctors 
— Enormous  number  of  candidates — The  functionaries  exclusively 
selected  from  the  literati — Most  of  the  posts  sold — The  syndicate  for 
the  exploitation  of  public  offices — The  gravest  defect  of  the  system, 
the  examinations,  the  subjects  selected  being  merely  exercises  in 
rhetoric  and  memory  about  an  immense  quantity  of  nonsensical 
matter  supplied  by  the  Chinese  classics  and  ancient  annals — Abortive 
attempts  to  introduce  small  doses  of  Western  science  into  these  ex- 
aminations— Superstitions  of  the  literati — This  stupid  system  of  ex- 
amination the  principal  cause  of  Chinese  isolation — Complete  disap- 
pearance of  the  military  spirit  resulting  from  the  same  fatal  cause — 
Hostility  and  contempt  entertained  by  the  literati  against  all  European 
progress — Difficulty  of  suppressing  or  reforming  the  mandarinate. 

The  curse  of  China  and  the  main  reason  why  her  remarkable 
people,  who  once  deserved  to  be  compared  with  the  ancient 
Romans,  have  sunk  to  the  degraded  condition  in  which  we 
find  them  at  present,  is  the  mandarinate,  which  she  has  the 
misfortune  to  consider  one  of  her  chief  glories.  It  is  this 
corrupt  and  antiquated  system  that  is  destroying  the  Celestial 
Empire.  It  has  often  been  observed  that  nations  generally 
have  the  Government  they  deserve,  and  it  is  undoubtedly 
true  that  the  administration  of  China  is,  in  a measure,  the 
logical  result  of  her  geographical  situation  and  singular  history, 
to  which  might  be  added  the  peculiar  character  of  her  people. 
On  the  other  hand,  there  is  no  question  that  the  worst  traits  of 
the  national  character  are  accentuated  in  the  mandarin  class 
which  governs  the  country,  and  saps  its  activity  and  energy. 

Theoretically,  the  Chinese  Government  is  based  on  paternal 
principles ; as  a matter  of  fact,  it  is  entirely  in  the  hands  of 
the  class  known  as  ‘ literati,’  from  whose  ranks  all  the  State 

204 


CHINA 


officials,  or  mandarins,  are  recruited ; and  if  we  wish  to  under- 
stand the  primary  causes  of  the  misgovernment  of  the  Celestial 
Empire,  we  must  become  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  origin 
and  manners  of  the  mandarins,  who  are  not  hereditary,  but 
recruited  from  the  mass  of  the  people  in  the  most  democratic 
manner  in  the  world  by  means  of  public  competitive  examina- 
tions. These  examinations  confer  three  honorary  degrees, 
which  might  be  likened  to  those  bestowed  by  our  Universities : 
Bachelors,  Masters  of  Arts,  and  Doctors.  The  degree  of 
Bachelor  is  competed  for  in  each  district  (there  are  sixty  districts 
per  province),  and  that  of  Master  of  Arts  in  the  eighteen  pro- 
vincial capitals  ; that  of  Doctor,  on  the  other  hand,  is  only  to  be 
obtained  in  Peking.  One  may  imagine  the  esteem  in  which 
these  degrees  are  held  by  the  people  when  I mention  that  in 
1897,  when  I was  at  Shanghai,  no  less  than  14,000  candidates 
came  up  for  examination  at  Nan-king,  with  only  150  honours  to 
be  distributed  amongst  them.  It  is  considered  a great  honour 
for  a family  to  include  a literate  amongst  its  members,  and  his 
obtaining  his  degree  is  celebrated  throughout  the  entire  province 
which  enjoys  the  privilege  of  being  his  birthplace.  Should  he 
be  fortunate  enough  to  obtain  his  laureate  at  Peking,  he  is  wel- 
comed on  his  return  to  his  native  town  as  a veritable  conquering 
hero.  It  is  quite  true  that,  in  order  to  pass  his  examination,  he  has 
to  go  through  an  amount  of  physical  suffering  and  patient 
endurance  which  would  deter  any  but  a Chinaman  from  the 
attempt.  Each  candidate  is  shut  up  for  three  whole  days 
in  a box-like  cell  four  feet  square,  in  which  he  cannot 
even  lie  down,  with  no  other  companions  than  his  brush, 
paper  and  stick  of  Chinese  ink ; and  barely  an  examination 
passes  without  some  student  or  other  being  found  dead  in  his 
cell.  According  to  popular  rumour,  it  is  said  that  the  all- 
pervading  corruption  penetrates  even  into  these  cells,  and  that 
not  a few  candidates  succeed  less  through  their  merits  than 
through  the  golden  gate ; and  it  has  even  been  observed  that 
the  sons  and  near  relatives  of  existing  high  functionaries  are 
pretty  sure  to  pass  ; but  as  a rule,  however,  it  seems  that  merit 
generally  obtains  its  reward.  It  is,  however,  after  the  exami- 
nations that  begin  the  real  difficulties  of  those  who  are  not  rich 
and  are  without  influential  friends.  One  might  naturally  expect 
that  after  the  trouble,  fatigue,  and  expense  of  the  examination 
were  over,  some  post  or  other  would  surely  be  forthcoming 
to  recompense  the  efforts  of  the  candidate ; but  the  contrary 

205 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


is  the  rule,  and  many  a man  has  had  to  wait  a lifetime  before 
obtaining  the  reward  for  which  he  has  striven  so  hard.  Never- 
theless, those  students  who  seem  to  possess  exceptional  ability 
generally  push  themselves  forward  in  the  following  manner  : a 
syndicate  has  been  formed  which  advances  the  funds  necessary 
to  assist  the  aspirant  in  mounting  the  first  rung  on  the  ladder  of 
fame,  and  to  help  him  further,  until  he  is  in  a position  to  return 
the  money  borrowed,  either  in  cash  or  kind,  with  a very  hand- 
some interest.  The  idea  of  exploiting  public  offices  as  a 
sort  of  commercial  concern  is,  to  say  the  least,  ingenious,  and, 
what  is  more,  it  seems  to  be  occasionally  exceedingly  remu- 
nerative. On  the  other  hand,  the  expense  and  the  intrigue  that 
such  a pernicious  system  must  necessarily  involve  can  better 
be  imagined  than  described.  As  an  instance  in  point,  I was 
assured  that  the  position  of  Tao-tai  or  Governor  of  Shanghai, 
worth,  for  not  more  than  three  years,  a salary  of  6,000  taels, 
or  j^goo,  a year,  was  recently  bought  for  over  ^30,000. 

Even  worse  than  the  purchase  of  public  offices,  and  the 
favouritism  shown  at  examinations,  are  the  subjects  chosen  for 
competition,  which  are  exclusively  selected  from  Chinese 
classical  and  scholastic  literature.  The  works  of  Confucius, 
those  of  his  disciples,  of  Mencius  and  of  other  philosophers  who 
enlightened  the  world  two  thousand  years  ago,  and  a mass  of 
quaint  lore  derived  from  the  ancient  Chinese  chronicles,  form 
the  subject  of  these  extraordinary  examinations,  and  the  students 
have  to  learn  some  hundred  volumes  as  nearly  as  possible  by 
heart,  memory  being  the  one  thing  most  highly  prized  by  the 
Board  of  Examiners.  The  student  is  expected  to  quote 
certain  extracts  word  by  word  as  they  appear  in  the  books, 
and  his  examination  papers  must,  moreover,  be  embellished  by 
a great  quantity  of  quotations — the  more  the  better.  An 
elegant  style  is  obtained  only  through  acquaintance  with  as 
many  of  the  60,000  Chinese  ^’laracters  as  possible,  from  which 
the  student  is  expected  to  make  an  appropriate  selection,  and. 
as  each  sign  means  a word,  and  not  a few  of  these  are  almost 
unknown,  and  only  to  be  found  in  some  hidden  corner  of  an 
ancient  volume,  the  waste  of  time  is  appalling.  The  preparatory 
instruction,  therefore,  simply  consists  in  cramming  the  wretched 
candidate  with  a knowledge  of  as  great  a number  of  signs  or 
characters,  and  quotations  from  the  Celestial  classics,  as 
possible.  One  of  the  most  curious  features  of  the  Chinese  is 
that,  although  everybody  knows  how  to  read  and  write  a little, 


CHINA 


no  one  can  do  so  perfectly,  for  the  simple  reason  that  no 
Chinaman  has  ever  been  known  to  completely  master  the 
voluminous  alphabet  of  his  country.  The  most  ignorant  has 
acquired  some  ten  or  a dozen  characters  relating  to  his  trade, 
and  sufficient  for  his  purpose.  When  a man  has  mastered 
6,000  or  8,000  he  is  considered  learned,  and,  when  we  come 
to  think  of  it,  there  must  be  very  few  ideas  that  cannot  be 
expressed  by  so  many  thousands  of  words.  Many  of  the 
higher  literati  manage  to  acquire  even  20,000  words,  and 
the  state  of  the  mind  of  that  man  may  safely  be  left  to  the 
reader’s  imagination,  especially  if  we  reflect  that  he  must 
have  passed  his  entire  youth  studying  by  rote  thousands  of 
signs  only  distinguishable  from  one  another  by  the  minutest 
strokes,  and  in  acquiring  a prodigious  amount  of  obsolete 
knowledge  from  classical  books  and  annals  whose  authors 
lived  in  remote  antiquity.  Of  late  years  a slight  modification 
has  been  introduced  in  the  shape  of  certain  concessions  to 
what  is  officially  called  the  ‘ new  Western  culture.’  To  the 
usual  questions  selected  from  the  works  of  Confucius  and  other 
philosophers  have  now  been  added  the  identification  of  names 
mentioned  in  modern  geography,  and  since  the  Chino-Japanese 
War  the  examiners  at  Nan-king  ask  their  candidates  some  very 
grave  and  informing  queries  in  astronomy,  as : ‘ What  is  the 
apparent  diameter  of  the  sun  as  seen  from  the  earth  ? and  what 
would  be  that  of  the  earth  as  seen  from  the  sun' or  from  some 
other  planet?’  The  following  sage  question  is  typical  of 
the  intellectual  condition  of  both  examiner  and  examined  : 
‘ Why  is  the  character  in  writing  which  represents  the  moon 
closed  at  the  bottom,  and  the  one  which  represents  the  sun 
left  open  ?’ 

In  the  capital  of  a province  near  Shanghai  the  learned 
examiners  wished  to  encourage  the  study  of  mathematics,  and, 
accordingly,  prizes  were  offered  for  competition  and  a solemn 
circular  sent  out  to  encourage  young  men  to  take  part  in  the 
examination.  Some  young  fellows,  who  had  been  educated  in 
the  missionary  schools,  solved  most  of  the  problems  offered 
fairly  well,  and  in  accordance  with  the  rules  of  modern  elemen- 
tary education.  Others,  on  the  other  hand,  who  were  better 
acquainted  with  the  Four  Books  and  the  Five  Great  Classics 
than  with  Western  geometry,  made  the  remarkable  discovery 
that  the  problems  were  explained  in  an  old  work  written  many 
centuries  ago,  with  the  result  that  they  simply  copied  word  by 

207 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


word  the  fantastical  solutions  therein  formulated,  and,  of 
course,  carried  off  the  prizes.  In  the  following  year  one  of  the 
professors  of  a foreign  missionary  college  asked  leave  for  a 
competent  European  teacher  to  be  included  in  the  examining 
committee  in  order  to  assist  in  the  preparation  of  the  papers 
and  to  pronounce  a verdict  upon  the  answers  sent  in.  Need- 
less to  say,  the  demand  was  refused  and  the  questions  were 
sent  out  without  the  least  attempt  to  insure  their  being  loyally 
answered.  Among  the  questions  asked  at  a competitive 
scientific  examination  in  Chekiang  in  1898  were  the  follow- 
ing ; ‘ How  are  foreign  candles  made,  and  in  what  consists 
their  superiority  over  those  manufactured  in  China  ?’  ‘ Name 

the  principal  ports  touched  at  by  the  steamers  running  between 
Japan  and  the  Mediterranean.’  ‘ To  which  of  the  new  sciences 
and  methods  which  people  are  endeavouring  to  introduce 
should  the  greatest  importance  be  attached  ?’  ‘ Write  an  essay 

on  international  law.’  Comment  is  needless. 

These  foolish  innovations,  of  course,  do  not  change  the  funda- 
mental scholastic  and  rhetorical  character  of  Chinese  exami 
nations,  and  the  usual  themes  for  the  compositions  remain 
identical.  Here  are  two  examples  quoted  by  Mr.  Henry 
Norman  : ‘ Confucius  hath  said,  “ In  what  majesty  did  Chun 
and  Yu  reign  over  the  Empire,  as  though  the  Empire  was 
as  nothing  unto  them!”  Confucius  hath  said,  “Yao  was 
verily  a great  sovereign.  How  glorious  he  was  ! Heaven 
alone  is  grand,  and  Yao  only  worthy  to  enter  it.  How  exalted 
was  his  virtue  ! The  people  could  find  no  words  wherewith  to 
qualify  it.”  ’*  This  was  the  theme  that  had  to  be  developed 
by  many  a flower  of  rhetoric.  It  is  only  through  the  study  of 
these  books,  written  twenty  centuries  ago,  and  encumbered  by 
parables  and  affected  maxims,  and  of  ancient  annals  crammed 
with  fantastic  legends  believed  in  as  absolute  facts,  that  are 
selected  the  members  of  the  class  who  are  expected  to  govern 
China! 

The  result  of  this  method  of  education  was  exemplified  as 
late  as  1897,  two  years  after  a war  which  had  brought  the 
Celestial  Empire  within  an  inch  of  ruin,  when  a censor,  one  of 
the  highest  officials  in  the  Empire,  addressed  a document  to 
the  Emperor,  wherein  he  protested  against  the  concessions 
made  to  the  inventions  of  the  Western  barbarians,  which  he 

* ‘ Politics  and  Peoples  of  the  Far  East.’  London : Fisher  Unwin. 
1895. 


208 


CHINA 


did  not  hesitate  to  qualify  as  calculated  to  disturb  the  peace 
of  the  dead.  Instead  of  constructing  railways,  he  gravely 
insisted,  it  were  wiser  to  offer  a handsome  reward  to  the  man 
who  should  recover  the  secret  of  making  flying  chariots  to  be 
drawn  by  phoenixes  which  certainly  existed  in  the  good  old  times. 
A little  time  previously  a member  of  the  Tsung-li-Yamen  had 
lifted  his  voice  to  protest  against  the  various  railway  embank- 
ments and  the  nails  that  studded  the  lines,  which,  he  believed, 
were  likely  to  inconvenience  and  wound  the  sacred  dragons 
who  protect  the  cities  of  the  Empire,  and  who  dwell  beneath 
the  soil.  The  strange  superstitions  of  the  fengshui  geomancy 
dealing  with  the  circulation  through  the  air  of  good  and  evil 
spirits,  and  with  the  prescribed  height  to  which  buildings  may 
be  erected,  and  the  exact  positions  of  doors  and  other  like 
grave  matters,  which,  it  seems,  unless  they  be  properly  attended 
to,  are  apt  to  upset  and  offend  the  flying  spirits  in  their  pro- 
gress through  space,  exercise  a greater  empire  over  the  minds 
of  Chinese  officials  in  the  very  highest  places  than  matters 
which  we  should  consider  of  the  greatest  importance. 

The  fact  that  the  mandarinate  is  recruited  from  the  demo- 
cracy renders  it  even  more  pernicious  than  if  it  constituted  a 
hereditary  aristocracy,  for,  as  it  stands,  nobody  has  any  interest 
in  overthrowing  it.  The  most  intelligent  people  try  to  enter 
it,  and  it  attracts  all  the  most  gifted  men  in  the  Empire,  but 
only  to  corrupt  them.  The  literary  class  enjoys  an  enormous 
prestige,  and  the  poorest  man  lives  in  the  hope  of  seeing  his 
son  one  of  its  learned  members.  It,  therefore,  does  not  excite 
any  of  that  hatred  usually  provoked  by  caste  privilege,  and 
thus  does  not  stand  the  least  danger  of  being  upset.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  condition  to  which  it  has  reduced  the 
Celestial  Empire  is  a condemnation  of  the  system  of  examina- 
tion for  Government  office,  and  many  a Western  State  might 
do  well  to  study  this  question  and  to  take  its  lesson  to  heart. 
That  its  effects  have  been  more  accentuated  in  China  than 
elsewhere  is  undeniable,  being  the  result  of  diverse  historic 
and  ethnographical  circumstances  peculiar  to  that  nation.  The 
Chinese  reached  a high  state  of  civilization  long  before  our 
era,  and  being  more  numerous  and  intelligent  than  their  neigh- 
bours, so  soon  as  they  were  cemented  into  one  compact 
nationality  they  proceeded  to  subjugate  Indo- China  and 
Korea;  and  so  it  came  to  pass  that  China  had  no  dangerous 
foes  to  disturb  her,  Japan  being  isolated  in  her  island  Empire, 

209  p 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


and  she  was  separated  from  India  by  a formidable  mountain 
barrier  and  from  the  West  by  immense  deserts.  From  that 
time  the  Chinese  had  nothing  to  trouble  them,  and  had  but 
to  live  in  quiet  admiration  of  the  labours  of  their  ancestors, 
who  were  the  authors  of  the  perfect  peace  which  they  enjoyed, 
and  thus  little  by  little  they  accustomed  themselves  to  look 
upon  them  as  superior  beings  and  as  types  of  perfection. 
More  advanced  than  any  of  their  tributary  subjects,  and  having 
nothing  to  fear  from  competition,  they  became  lost  in  self- 
admiration, or,  rather,  in  the  admiration  of  those  who  had 
made  their  country  what  it  was,  and  ended  by  believing  that 
no  further  progress  was  either  necessary  or  possible,  and  thus 
are  now  absolutely  non-progressive. 

The  isolation  and  the  want  of  emulation  in  which  China  has 
existed  for  so  many  centuries  have  destroyed  whatever  energy 
and  initiative  she  might  otherwise  have  possessed.  It  should  be 
remarked,  however,  that  the  Roman  Empire  was  in  very  much 
the  same  condition,  and  for  the  same  reason,  at  the  time  of  the 
invasion  of  the  Barbarians,  and  that  outside  the  moral  revolution 
effected  by  Christianity — which,  by  the  way,  only  obtained  its 
fullest  developments  by  the  overthrow  of  the  Empire — no  further 
progress  was  being  made.  The  sterile  admiration  of  bygone 
greatness,  therefore,  is  the  foundation-stone  of  the  doctrines  of 
Confucius.  The  Chinese  people,  who  are  essentially  practical 
and  positive,  and  less  given,  perhaps,  than  any  other  in  the 
world  to  study  general  questions  and  lofty  ideals,  soon  de- 
teriorated under  so  retrogressive  a system,  and  eventually  lost 
all  sight  of  the  origin  of  many  of  their  most  important  institu- 
tions. Religion  and  morals  were  reduced  to  mere  rites  and 
ceremonies  that  only  conceal  the  emptiness  of  Chinese  civili- 
zation, and  so  the  nation  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  one 
thing  in  this  world  worth  the  doing  was  to  save  appearances, 
and  conceal  corruption  beneath  a flimsy  mask. 

The  isolation  of  China  and  her  superiority  over  her  neigh- 
bours produced  another  very  grave  consequence — the  ruin  of 
that  martial  spirit  which  has  obliterated  all  idea  of  duty  and 
sacrifice.  The  military  mandarins  are  despised  by  their  civil 
colleagues,  and  their  tests  consist  almost  exclusively  of  physical 
exercises  such  as  archery  and  the  lifting  of  heavy  weights. 
‘ One  does  not  use  good  iron  to  make  nails,  nor  a good  man  to 
make  a soldier,’  says  the  Chinese  proverb,  and  thus  it  is  that 
the  Chinese  army  is  recruited  from  a horde  of  blackguards 

210 


CHINA 


and  plunderers,  whose  only  good  qualities  are  their  contempt  for 
life  and  physical  endurance,  which  might  under  proper  manage- 
ment turn  this  raw  material  into  an  excellent  army. 

The  Celestial  Empire  is  quite  as  incapable  of  resisting 
the  advance  of  modern  civilization  as  it  is  of  assimilating  it. 
From  the  literati  who  govern  the  land  nothing  is  to  be  expected, 
for  they  will  neither  learn  nor  forget  anything.  Their  pre- 
judices  are  so  strong  as  to  prevent  their  accepting  any  great 
movement  of  reform,  even  if  it  were  in  their  interests,  and 
in  the  stagnant  position  in  which  China  is  at  present,  aided 
by  the  lack  of  intercommunication  between  the  provinces, 
the  mandarins  do  exactly  as  they  please.  The  Peking  Gazette, 
the  official  paper,  described  quite  recently  in  the  most  glowing 
terms  the  suppression  of  a revolt,  showing  at  the  same  time 
the  expenses  incurred  and  the  rewards  offered  to  those  who 
had  aided  in  its  suppression.  The  real  truth  of  the  story 
was  that  no  revolution  whatever  had  taken  place  in  the  district 
mentioned,  and  the  only  unusual  event  which  had  occurred  was 
the  pursuit  of  a runaway  thief  by  three  soldiers.  Such  an 
instance  could  not  possibly  occur  in  a well-regulated  State,  and 
naturally  the  men  who  profited  by  the  lie  will  not  be  very 
desirous  of  a change  in  so  profitable  a system.  ‘ Those  who 
despair  most  of  China  are  those  who  know  her  best,’  once 
said  a missionary  to  me;  and  his  words  have  been  confirmed 
by  nearly  every  traveller  in  the  Far  East  with  whom  I have 
spoken  on  the  subject.  No  reform  can  be  expected  in  the 
country  from  within,  and  a proof  in  point  will  be  found  in 
the  history  of  the  Palace  Revolution  of  September  9th,  1898. 
The  question,  therefore,  which  presents  itself  is  whether 
external  pressure  can  be  brought  to  bear  on  China  with  a view 
to  reforming  her  Government  without  causing  the  dislocation 
of  the  Empire. 


21  I 


P 2 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  CHINESE  PEOPLE  AND  THEIR  CHARACTERISTICS 

Great  antiquity  of  China’s  national  existence — Stagnation  of  her  organiza- 
tion as  well  as  of  her  social,  religious  and  administrative  institutions — 
Unity  of  Chinese  civilization  notwithstanding  varied  surroundings, 
differences  of  language  and  of  racial  origin,  it  being  much  more  in- 
flexible than  that  of  the  Western  world — Some  of  the  principal 
characteristics  of  the  Chinese — Love  of  false  appearances — Gulf  that 
divides  the  theoretical  from  the  practical  in  all  matters  of  Chinese 
administration — Corruption  of  the  Chinese  Government  and  its  deter- 
mination to  impede  progress — Lightness  of  the  taxes — The  mass  of 
the  people  apparently  happy  under  distressing  circumstances — The 
good-humour  and  liveliness  of  the  Celestials — Pity  said  to  be  absolutely 
excluded  from  the  Chinese  character — Why  the  Chinese  make  bad 
soldiers — Organization  of  the  family  and  position  of  women — Vices  of 
the  Chinese : love  of  gambling,  opium,  filthy  habits  and  super- 
stitions— Their  better  qualities — The  people  themselves  not  in  a state 
of  decadence — Primary  effects  of  contact  with  Western  civilization. 

The  Chinese  are  at  one  and  the  same  time  the  most  numerous 
and  the  longest  existing  nation  in  the  world.  The  annals  of 
the  Celestial  Empire  date  as  far  back  as  those  of  Egypt,  and 
twenty  centuries  ago,  when  States  which  now  rule  the  earth 
were  in  process  of  formation,  China,  having  undergone  several 
evolutions,  was  already  constituted  as  she  is  to-day.  The 
Chinese  have  never  been  subjected  to  any  of  those  marked  and 
repeated  changes  which,  during  the  last  two  thousand  years, 
have  so  profoundly  modified  the  social  organization  and  the 
manners  and  customs  of  other  countries ; and  even  the  intro- 
duction of  a new  religion  did  not  produce  in  the  East  anything 
comparable  to  the  revolution  which,  at  about  the  same  time, 
occurred  in  the  West  through  the  spread  of  Christianity. 
Buddhism  did  not  modify  the  Chinese  people,  but  the 
Chinese  people  modified  Buddhism  after  their  own  image  and 
likeness,  without,  however,  permitting  the  doctrines  of  Sakya- 

212 


CHINA 


muni  to  exercise  the  least  influence  over  their  character,  or 
change  an  iota  of  their  ideas  concerning  life  and  morality, 
which  were  determined  by  Confucius  and  other  sage  Celestials, 
being  in  reality  derived  less  from  the  meditations  of  philosophers 
or  the  inspiration  of  prophets  than  from  the  intuitive  instinct 
of  the  race.  The  institutions  of  China  have  not  altered  the 
mental  habits  or  method  of  life  upon  which  they  profess  to  be 
modelled,  any  more  than  has  the  theoretical  principle  of  family 
existence  altered  the  Imperial  Government;  for  the  Chinese 
even  now  often  qualify  their  high  officials  by  the  endearing 
epithets  ‘ father  ’ and  ‘ mother.’  Political  revolutions  have  not 
made  a deeper  impression  upon  the  fossilized  organization  of 
the  Chinese  Government,  than  has  religion  on  the  character 
and  manners  of  the  people.  The  various  dynasties  that  have 
succeeded  each  other  have  changed  nothing,  although  some 
of  them  have  been  of  foreign  origin ; the  Mongolian  in  the 
thirteenth  century  and  the  Manchurian  in  our  own  time ; but 
they  effected  no  variations  in  the  system  of  Government,  and 
only  placed  certain  functionaries  to  \vatch  over  the  mandarins, 
precisely  as  the  Tatar  marshals  are  instructed  to  spy  upon  the 
officials  of  nowadays. 

China  has  always  been  governed  after  Chinese  methods,  and 
although  she  has  occasionally  been  conquered  by  foreigners,  she 
has  invariably  absorbed  them  into  her  own  civilization,  and 
obliged  them  to  observe  her  traditions.  The  Chinese  care 
very  little  about  the  future,  the  greatness  or  the  independence 
of  their  country ; but  they  cling  with  extraordinary  tenacity  to 
their  old  manners  and  customs,  and  thereby  offer  a striking 
contrast  to  their  neighbours  the  Japanese,  who,  notwithstanding 
their  intense  patriotism,  will  make  any  sacrifice,  even  that  of 
religious  principle  and  most  cherished  tradition,  if  they  think 
that  they  may  thereby  benefit  their  Empire.  The  Japanese 
have  almost  the  same  conception  of  patriotism  as  Europeans, 
but  not  so  the  Chinese,  with  whom  this  virtue  is  merely  a racial 
affair,  which  in  the  hour  of  danger  invariably  proves  of  little 
or  no  avail,  especially  against  adversaries  of  a kind  never 
previously  encountered. 

Does  there  exist,  beyond  this  intense  love  of  old  customs 
and  of  an  immutable  civilization,  any  bond  of  union  among 
the  three  or  four  hundred  millions  of  human  beings  who 
constitute  the  population  of  China  ?*  At  first  sight  no  people 
* The  population  of  China  has  been  very  variously  estimated.  There 

213 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


could  possibly  appear  more  thoroughly  homogeneous  than  the 
Chinese;  but  it  is  not  necessary  to  stay  long  among  them 
to  perceive  that  even  from  the  physical  point  of  view  there  are 
certain  racial  differences  which  make  it  more  difficult  at  first 
to  note  the  dissimilarity  which  separates  their  race  from  our 
own.  Even  more  striking  are  the  diverse  dialects  spoken  in 
the  Empire,  several  of  which  are  not  mere  patois,  but  distinct 
languages,  rendering  it  impossible  for  a native  of  Canton  or 
Foo-chow  to  make  himself  understood  at  Peking ; and  in 
many  provinces  these  idiomatic  peculiarities  are  very  interest- 
ing. In  Fo-kien  no  less  than  three  patois  are  spoken — the 
Amoy,  Swatow,  and  the  Foo-chow,  which  are  utterly  different 
from  each  other.  Between  the  cities  of  Peking  and  Tien-tsin, 
scarcely  thirty  leagues  apart,  there  is  already  a marked  differ- 
ence in  the  matter  of  dialect.  It  is  also  a noteworthy  fact 
that  very  little  sympathy  exists  among  the  Chinese  from  different 
provinces,  who  keep  aloof  from  each  other  even  when  circum- 
stances oblige  them  to  live  in  the  same  town.  Very  marked, 
too,  are  the  divergent  characteristics  and  temperaments  ob- 
servable between  the  inhabitants  of  the  North  and  those  of 
the  South,  the  former  being  much  the  most  energetic  and  enter- 
prising, but  at  the  same  time  more  hostile  to  foreigners.  The 
Central  Government  is  almost  unknown  by  the  multitudes  out- 
side of  Peking,  and  it  would  be  a comparatively  easy  task  to 
raise  an  army  in  one  part  of  China  to  fight  against  the  inhabi- 
tants of  another. 

The  question  may  now  be  asked  whether  China,  which  covers 
an  area  equal  to  that  of  Europe,  and  is  even  more  thickly 
peopled,  is  less  homogeneous  than  our  own  Continent.  Does 
there  exist  between  the  various  Chinese  provinces  the  same 
differences  that  mark  each  of  the  nations  that  in  the  aggregate 
form  Europe  ? From  the  geographical  and  climatic  point  of 
view  it  is  evident  that  the  difference  is  not  very'  great,  although 
China  possesses  very  high  mountains  only  on  her  Western 

exist  ofiBcial  statistics,  but  the  question  is,  what  faith  can  be  placed  in 
them  ? The  ‘ Statesman’s  Year  Book,’  which  is  generally  well  informed, 
returns  383,000.000  for  China  Proper,  and  402,000,000  for  the  entire 
Empire.  Some  travellers,  however,  are  of  opinion  that  these  figures  should 
be  greatly  modified,  and  hold  that  the  correct  medium  is  between 
200,000,000  and  250,000,000,  because  the  mountainous  regions  are  very 
thinly  populated,  and  travellers  erroneously  form  an  opinion  from  the  con- 
dition of  the  valleys  through  which  they  pass,  which  are  generally  densely 
populated. 


214 


CHINA 


frontier,  and  her  plains  are  much  more  extensive  and  con- 
tinuous. But  from  the  ethnical  point  of  view  it  would  be  an 
exaggeration  to  state  that  there  is  much  analogy  between  China 
and  Europe,  since  the  former  is  certainly  much  the  more  homo- 
geneous. The  different  countries  of  our  Continent  are  inhabited 
by  peoples  who  are  only  remotely  related  to  each  other,  and 
who  are  merely  united  by  the  ties  of  a common  civilization, 
whereas  amongst  the  subjects  of  the  Son  of  Heaven  the  ties 
are  much  stronger  and  the  physical  resemblance  is  more 
marked.  I am,  of  course,  speaking  of  the  inhabitants  of  China 
proper  only — of  the  eighteen  provinces,  to  which  might  be 
added  a nineteenth,  Ching-king,  or  Southern  Manchuria,  now 
in  process  of  colonization  by  the  Chinese.  The  various 
tributary  peoples  belonging  to  the  Celestial  Empire,  such  as 
the  Mongolians,  the  Thibetans  and  the  Turki  in  Eastern 
Turkestan,  are  absolutely  distinct  from  each  other  and  from 
the  predominant  race;  but  although  the  dependencies  which 
they  cover  constitute  two-thirds  of  the  surface  of  the  entire 
Empire,  they  only  form  a twentieth  of  the  entire  population, 
and  do  not  share  in  its  Government. 

It  should  be  observed  that  the  absence  of  any  sympathy 
between  the  inhabitants  of  the  different  Chinese  provinces  might 
have  been  found  quite  recently  exemplified  in  Europe,  not 
merely  between  nation  and  nation,  but  between  province  and 
province  in  the  same  country,  and  that  linguistic  variations  are 
still  noticeable  even  in  the  most  homogeneous  countries. 
History  is  full  of  instances  of  intestine  troubles  which  have 
existed  in  nearly  every  European  nation,  and  it  is  but  thirty 
years  since  the  Germans  were  at  war  with  each  other. 

I have  often  heard  related  the  misadventures  of  two 
Celestials,  natives  of  different  provinces,  who,  whilst  travelling 
in  Europe,  met  one  day  only  to  discover  that  their  sole 
means  of  making  themselves  understood  was  by  speaking 
English.  But  does  not  this  story  recall  the  recent  Slav 
Congress  in  Austria,  whose  debates  had  to  be  held  in  German 
in  order  that  they  might  be  followed  by  all  the  delegates  ? 
The  existence  of  patois  and  dialects  results  from  the  inhabitants 
of  certain  districts  having  neither  the  time  nor  the  money  to 
go  beyond  their  village  further  than  the  nearest  market-town. 
Then,  again,  education  in  China  does  not  tend,  as  in  Europe, 
to  produce  unity  of  language,  since  its  writing  is  quite  inde- 
pendent of  pronunciation,  and  the  innumerable  letters  of  its 

215 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


alphabet  represent,  not  sounds,  but  ideas.  The  lack  of  any 
spirit  of  patriotism  may  be  largely  attributed  to  this  state  of 
absolute  isolation,  to  which  may  be  added  a general  and  very 
profound  ignorance.  But  patriotism  as  we  understand  it  is, 
after  all,  a matter  of  modern  sentiment,  therefore  not  to  be 
looked  for  in  so  antiquated  a nation  as  the  Chinese. 

It  matters  little  whether  there  be  a common  origin  or  not, 
since  our  notions  of  race  are  very  difficult  to  define,  and  modern 
anthropological  and  ethnographical  discoveries  tend  more  and 
more  towards  the  acceptance  of  the  theory  of  the  existence 
of  distinct  races.  Whereas  the  patois  of  the  ten  northernmost 
provinces  are  merely  dialects  of  the  Manchurian  languages, 
those  of  the  south,  especially  of  Fo-kien  and  Canton,  are  totally 
different,  and  apparently  confirm  the  theory  that  the  Chinese 
invaders  who  came  from  the  north-east  found  the  land  already 
inhabited  by  a people  whom  they  assimilated,  precisely  as  they 
are  doing  in  our  time  in  Manchuria,  and  as  did  the  Romans 
in  ancient  Gaul. 

The  entire  population  of  China,  excepting  a few  obscure 
mountain  tribes,  the  remainder,  possibly,  of  the  autochthones 
of  the  South,  whatever  their  origin,  have  for  centuries  moulded 
themselves  on  a civilization  that  penetrates  far  deeper  into  the 
details  of  every-day  life  than  any  known  in  Europe.  The 
result  is  a greater  uniformity  among  the  people  who  have 
adopted  it  than  will  be  found  among  men  who  follow  a less 
rigid  code  that  permits  of  greater  latitude  and  affords  a freer 
scope  for  the  exercise  of  individuality.  Many  peculiarities  in 
the  Chinese  character  appear  at  first  contradictory,  even  to 
those  who  have  lived  long  in  the  country,  and  who  assert  that 
no  European  can  ever  thoroughly  understand  a Chinaman 
because  his  mind  is  so  differently  constituted. 

The  most  striking  characteristic  of  the  Chinese,  says  Mr. 
Arthur  H.  Smith,  an  American  missionary  who  has  lived 
twenty-two  years  in  China,  in  his  admirable  book  ‘ Chinese 
Characteristics,’  is  their  remarkable  manner  of  ‘ facing  ’ a 
thing.  To  save  appearances,  or  to  ‘face ’ a difficulty  cunningly 
rather  than  boldly,  is  the  endeavour  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Kingdom  of  the  Son  of  Heaven,  and  is  the  key,  moreover,  to  a 
great  many  other  matters  that  might  otherwise  appear  incom- 
prehensible. Every  Chinaman  considers  himself  an  actor, 
whose  public  words,  acts,  and  deeds  have  nothing  in  common 
with  reality.  The  most  praiseworthy  and  even  the  most  in- 

216 


CHINA 


nocent  of  actions,  unless  it  be  performed  in  a certain  way, 
will  only  cover  its  author  with  shame  and  ridicule.  If  a fault 
is  committed,  the  guilty  party  is  expected  to  deny  it  with  the 
utmost  effrontery  in  spite  of  convincing  evidence,  and  on  no 
account  must  he  confess  himself  guilty,  even  if  he  is  obliged  to 
repair  the  injury  done.  From  the  highest  to  the  lowest,  the 
Chinese  entertain  a profound  respect  for  shamming.  A boy 
caught  stealing  will  slip  the  coveted  object  up  his  sleeves, 
stoop  down  and  pretend  to  pick  it  up,  and  with  the  smile  of 
an  angel  present  it  to  his  master,  saying,  ‘ Here  is  what  you 
have  lost.’  A little  over  a hundred  years  ago  the  mandarins 
who  were  escorting  Macartney,  the  English  Ambassador,  into 
the  presence  of  the  Son  of  Heaven,  profited  by  his  ignorance  of 
their  language  to  place  over  his  carriage  an  inscription  to  the 
effect  that  it  contained  ‘ the  Ambassador  bringing  tribute  from 
the  Kingdom  of  England,’  and  thus  kept  up  the  fiction  of  the 
universal  sovereignty  of  their  lord  and  master. 

Undoubtedly  the  observance  of  a certain  amount  of  etiquette 
is  both  useful  and  praiseworthy,  and  so  considered  by  all 
civilized  nations ; but  Chinese  etiquette  is  the  most  punctilious 
and  complicated  that  was  ever  imagined,  and  never  on  any 
account  to  be  neglected  for  a single  instant.  This  excessive 
attention  to  outward  forms,  which,  if  they  be  but  observed, 
may  conceal  any  kind  of  iniquity,  explains  the  fact  that  in 
China  there  is  a deeper  gulf  between  theory  and  practice  than 
in  any  other  country  in  the  world.  That  it  has  always  been  so 
may  be  questioned,  but  at  present  the  morals  of  Confucius 
have  long  since  been  lost  in  a code  of  etiquette  which  defines 
virtue  as  consisting  in  the  observance  to  the  letter  of  the  three 
hundred  rules  of  ceremony  and  the  three  thousand  regulations 
of  conduct,  without  paying  the  least  attention  to  the  spirit 
in  which  they  were  originally  formulated. 

It  is  in  the  system  of  Government  in  China  that  the  con- 
trast between  precept  and  practice  becomes  most  evident. 
As  Mr.  Henry  Norman  remarks  with  hardly  exaggerated 
severity,  ‘ Every  Chinese  official,  with  the  possible  exception 
of  one  in  a thousand,  is  a liar,  a thief  and  a tyrant  1’ 
Exam  [lies  confirming  this  assertion  are  very  numerous,  and 
even  the  celebrated  Li  Hung-chang  cannot  be  included  in  the 
list  of  those  officials  who  are  noted  for  their  honesty,  since  he 
had'  to  disgorge  a great  part  of  the  immense  fortune  he  had 
accumulated— twenty  millions,  it  is  reputed — to  save  his  head 

217 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


during  the  Chino- Japanese  War,  when  he  had  to  purchase 
the  goodwill  of  many  Court  dignitaries,  eunuchs  and  others, 
notwithstanding  which,  money  matters  still  occupy  a great  deal 
of  his  attention.  I had  the  honour  while  I was  at  Peking  to 
dine  at  the  French  Legation  in  the  company  of  this  exalted 
personage,  on  the  occasion  of  the  visit  of  the  Admiral  com- 
manding the  French  Fleet  in  the  Far  East  and  several  officers 
of  his  staff.  Li  conversed  through  the  intermediary  of  an 
interpreter  named  Ma,  to  whom  he  spoke  in  the  Fo-kien,  his 
native  dialect ; it  appears  he  speaks  Manchu  very  badly.  He 
put  to  each  of  the  guests  several  polite  questions  usual  among 
Orientals,  inquired  after  their  rank,  their  age,  and  invariably 
wound  up  his  courteous  inquiries  by  asking : ‘ Well,  and  what 
is  your  salary?’  With  us  the  income  of  an  official  is  a matter 
of  very  little  importance,  but  with  the  famous  mandarin  it  was 
the  essential. 

For  centuries  the  administration  of  China  has  been  as  corrupt 
as  it  is  to-day,  but  for  all  this  it  has  never  driven  the  people 
to  rebellion.  It  is  true  that  occasionally  there  are  local  agita- 
tions, whose  chiefs  go  so  far  as  to  pounce  upon  offending 
representatives  of  authority  and  convey  them  to  the  capital  of 
the  district,  or  province,  to  demand  their  degradation,  which 
is  more  often  than  not  accorded — a fact  which  inspired  an 
English  paper  at  Shanghai  to  descant  on  the  ‘ democratic 
manner  in  which  the  Chinese  participate  in  their  government.’ 
Oppression  tempered  by  revolt  is  the  rule  which  prevails  in  the 
Celestial  Empire,  but  there  is  no  fear  of  a general  revolution 
against  so  degenerate  a system.  This  administrative  machine, 
however,  which  appears  to  us  to  be  so  detestable,  only  impedes 
progress,  but  does  not  affect  the  population,  which  is  accus- 
tomed to  routine  habits  hundreds  of  years  old,  and  has  not 
the  remotest  idea  that  a reform  is  either  necessary  or  practi- 
cable. When  an  enterprising  man  wishes  to  introduce  even 
the  most  insignificant  of  modern  trades,  he  invariably  attracts 
the  attention  of  the  mandarins,  to  whom  he  is  obliged  to  apply 
for  permission  to  carry  on  his  novelty,  and  will  only  obtain  it 
after  much  bribery  and  a promise  to  pay  such  a huge  per- 
centage on  his  profits  as  to  render  the  returns  of  his  venture 
too  insignificant  to  be  worth  his  continuing  it.  But  for  the 
uncomplaining  and  unprogressive,  w'ho  have  nothing  to  do 
with  administrative  affairs,  life  in  China  flows  easily  and  quietly 
enough.  The  taxes  are  very  light,  especially  for  the  peasantry, 

218 


CHINA 


who  live  by  what  they  harvest  in  their  fields,  or  for  the  work- 
people, whose  wants  are  very  small  They  fall,  however,  heavily 
upon  commercial  transactions  and  the  transport  of  merchan- 
dise, are  a great  impediment  to  commerce,  and  though  they 
never  affect  them  directly,  for  their  poverty  is  far  too  great  to 
permit  of  their  buying  anything,  they  contribute  indirectly  to 
keep  the  inferior  classes  in  a state  of  abject  poverty.  Accord- 
ing to  the  investigations  of  Herr  von  Brandt,  former  German 
Minister  to  Peking,  and  a man  who  has  studied  China  pro- 
foundly, the  land  tax  in  China  reaches  _;^5,25o,ooo,  being 
about  3s.  per  acre  in  the  North,  with  a maximum  of  13s.  in 
the  South.  This  is  not  much  when  we  consider  the  intense 
activity  of  Chinese  agriculture,  which  extracts  from  the  soil 
almost  everywhere  two  harvests  annually.  The  total  of  the 
Budget,  according  to  the  same  authority,  reaches  100,000,000 
taels,  or  5,000,000.  Other  authorities  estimated  it  as  high 
as  ;,^24,ooo,ooo,  but  even  this  is  not  excessive.  The  following 
is  Von  Brandt’s  account  of  the  different  sources  of  revenue  of 
the  Chinese  Empire  : 


Inland  Revenue  ...  ...  

Treaty  port  Customs  (obtained  by  the  International  Customs 
Service)  ...  ...  ...  ...  ... 

Right  for  transit  in  the  interior  (likin) ... 

Native  Customs  and  tax  on  native  opium 

Salt  tax  ...  ...  ...  ...  ... 

Sale  of  titles  and  honorary  distinctions 
Tribute  of  rice  ...  ...  ...  .«  ... 

Licenses,  etc.  ...  ...  ...  ...  ... 


;^S, 250,000 

3.450.000 

1.800.000 

1.500.000 
1,500,000 

750.000 

450.000 

300.000 


Total  ;^i  5,000,000 


The  public  revenues,  gathered  by  the  provincial  treasuries,  are 
sent  on  to  Peking  after  deduction  of  the  amount  necessary  for 
the  requirements  of  the  district.  It  is  stated  that  only  a third 
of  these  receipts  is  disposable  for  the  needs  of  the  Central 
Government. 

The  mass  of  the  Chinese  people  endure,  therefore,  without 
much  discontent,  a Government  which  in  ordinary  time  weighs 
very  lightly  upon  them,  that  meddles  very  little  in  the  affairs 
of  their  villages  or  communes,  always  very  strongly  consti- 
tuted in  the  Far  East,  and,  above  all,  never  disturbs  their 
ancient  customs.  Exceedingly  poor,  and  only  able  to  live  by 
dint  of  hard  work,  and  having  a very  severe  struggle  for  life, 

219 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


the  people  have  no  time  to  waste  on  philosophical  reflections, 
and,  moreover,  possess  no  standard  of  comparison  to  assist  it 
to  judge  of  the  hardness  of  its  fate.  In  addition  to  this,  we 
must  not  forget  that  the  Chinese  are  endowed  by  nature  with 
an  excessive  spirit  of  conservatism  and  a patience  and  per- 
severance quite  beyond  praise,  to  which  must  be  added  a 
jovial  good-humour  that  enables  them  to  endure  an  existence 
which  to  the  people  of  any  other  country  would  appear  in- 
tolerable. Peasants  and  work-people  alike  have  no  hope  of 
ever  seeing  their  humble  condition  improved,  and  their  pro- 
spective existence  is  one  of  absolute  monotony,  entirely  passed 
in  sowing  and  reaping,  in  carrying  heavy  burdens,  in  the 
turning  of  looms,  or  in  labouring  the  earth,  without  having, 
excepting  on  a few  feast-days,  a moment’s  rest,  save  what  is 
absolutely  necessary  for  meals  and  sleep.  None  the  less,  they 
always  seem  very  happy,  complain  very  little,  and  thoroughly 
enjoy  their  few  pleasures,  and  apparently  absolutely  ignore  their 
troubles. 

This  happy  spirit  of  resignation  explains  why  the  Chinese, 
notwithstanding  their  poverty,  are  one  of  the  most  contented 
people  in  the  world,  and,  consequently,  one  of  the  happiest; 
but,  unfortunately,  they  are  exposed  from  time  to  time  to 
dreadful  calamities  : an  inundation,  an  epidemic,  or  a bad 
harvest,  which  brings  about  inevitable  misery  and  famine 
to  the  entire  population,  who  are  left  without  any  resources 
because  their  work  has  not  been  sufficiently  remunerative  to 
enable  them  to  put  anything  by  for  a rainy  day.  Not  a year 
passes  without  a dreadful  calamity  occurring  somewhere  or 
other  in  the  immense  Celestial  Empire,  causing  the  deaths  of 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  people,  so  that,  notwithstanding  the 
astonishing  number  of  children  born,  the  population  apparently 
does  not  increase.  Here,  then,  we  have  a striking  application 
of  the  doctrines  of  Malthus ; for  in  this  society,  into  which  no 
ray  of  progress  is  admitted,  men  multiply  quicker  than  their 
means  of  subsistence,  but  natural  calamities  re  establish  the 
balance  by  annually  overwhelming  a prodigious  number  of 
men,  women  and  children. 

The  exaggerated  sense  of  conservatism  and  the  improvidence 
of  the  administration  are  in  part  responsible  for  the  occurrence 
of  these  grave  calamities,  which  are  generally  accompanied  by 
a recrudescence  of  that  chronic  piracy  and  brigandage  which 
is  peculiar  to  China,  being  the  sole  means  of  gaining  a liveli- 

220 


CHINA 


hood  left  to  many  ruined  wretches.  Sometimes,  however,  the 
agents  of  the  Government,  after  having  done  nothing  either 
to  prevent  a catastrophe  or  to  mitigate  its  consequences,  in- 
crease it  in  times  of  famine  by  their  avidity  in  seizing  the  rice, 
and  thus  provoke  a rebellion,  as  happened  in  1898  at  various 
parts  of  the  Yang-tsze-Kiang.  But  beyond  these  cases,  in 
which  the  authorities  are  manifestly  guilty,  the  Chinese  people 
submit  with  the  utmost  resignation  to  calamities  which  they 
foresee  and  consider  as  merely  natural,  and  which,  when  they 
happen,  barely  ruffle  their  habitual  placidity.  Death  to  such  a 
people  cannot  have  the  same  terrors  it  has  for  us. 

Europeans  are  of  all  the  civilized  peoples  of  the  earth  those 
who  complain  most  of  life,  but  yet  who  hold  most  dearly  to  it. 
The  people  of  the  Far  East,  the  Chinese  as  well  as  the  Japanese, 
on  the  other  hand,  consider  it  least.  Indifference  to  death 
seems  to  be  with  them  almost  a physical  characteristic,  the 
result  of  the  singular  insensibility  of  their  nervous  system. 
With  respect  to  this  last,  we  have  plenty  of  evidence.  The 
doctors  in  the  European  hospitals  where  natives  are  treated 
relate  with  amazement  how  their  patients  undergo  the  most 
painful  operations  without  a murmur  and  without  the  necessity 
of  having  to  resort  to  ansestheiics.  In  every-day  life,  too,  the 
same  curious  apathy  is  to  be  observed  in  the  extraordinary 
facility  with  which  they  can  fall  asleep  whenever  they  choose, 
even  in  the  midst  of  the  most  awful  din  and  noise,  and  they 
can,  moreover,  remain  for  hours  in  one  position  without 
making  the  slightest  motion.  The  reverse  of  the  medal  is 
that,  although  they  are  so  indifferent  to  their  own  sufferings, 
they  are  without  the  slightest  feeling  for  those  of  others,  and 
can  watch  the  writhing  agony  of  a human  being  without  ex- 
pressing the  least  horror  or  sympathy.  The  dreadful  custom 
of  binding  the  feet  of  women  in  such  a manner  as  to  push  the 
heel  forward  and  double  up  the  toes  under  the  sole  of  the 
foot,  inducing  a sore  that  is  never  healed,  is  but  one  out  of 
many  examples  of  Chinese  cruelty.  The  various  and  horrible 
tortures  inflicted  by  the  judicial  tribunals  are  another  illustra- 
tion of  the  same  dreadful  instinct.  The  idea  of  bargaining 
with  a person  in  danger  of  death,  or  with  a man  who  has 
fallen  into  the  water  before  attempting  to  rescue  him  from 
drowning,  are  things  which  would  never  suggest  themselves  to 
a European,  but  they  come  naturally  to  the  Chinese. 

The  little  value  in  which  human  life  is  held  in  the  Far  East 


221 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


is  exemplified  by  the  frequency  of  suicide,  merely  to  vindicate 
a point  of  honour  which  in  many  parts  of  Europe  would  be 
settled  at  the  point  of  the  sword.  The  hara-kiri  is  not  re- 
stricted to  Japan,  or  to  the  upper  classes  of  Chinese  society. 
A Chinaman,  even  of  the  lowest  order,  will  commit  suicide 
out  of  vengeance,  spite,  or  even  through  what  he  considers  a 
matter  of  honour.  Sacrifice  of  life  is  common  even  among 
women,  if  we  may  believe  the  following  narrative  extracted  from 
a Chinese  newspaper  : 

‘ One  day  a sow  belonging  to  a certain  Madame  Feng,  having 
done  some  slight  injury  to  the  door  of  a certain  Madame  Wang, 
that  lady  forthwith  demanded  compensation  with  interest,  which 
was  refused,  whereupon  Madame  Wang  announced  her  intention 
of  committing  suicide.  This  dreadful  threat  proved  altogether 
too  much  for  Madame  Feng,  who  there  and  then  determined 
to  beat  her  enemy  with  her  own  weapon  by  flinging  herself 
into  the  nearest  canal.’*  Suicides  are  by  no  means  rare  among 
the  upper  classes  of  the  literati,  and  quite  recently  a censor, 
a high  functionary  who  possesses  the  privilege  of  addressing 
petitions  to  the  Sovereign,  awaited  the  passing  of  the  Imperial 
cortege  and  then  killed  himself  as  a political  demonstration,  in 
order  to  add  weight  to  a memorial  he  had  presented  concern- 
ing some  promise  of  the  Government  which  had  not  been 
fulfilled.  The  innumerable  public  executions  form  a pendant 
to  the  equally  numerous  cases  of  suicide. 

The  reader  may  be  somewhat  surprised  that  a people  fearing 
death  so  little  should  make  such  bad  soldiers ; but,  after  all, 
however  lightly  a man  may  hold  his  life,  no  one  sacrifices  it 
unless  it  be  for  some  ideal  or  other.  If  the  Celestials  care  so 
little  about  existence,  they  care  still  less  for  the  grandeur  of 
their  country,  patriotic  feeling  being  absolutely  absent  from 
their  nature.  During  the  French  campaign  in  Formosa  it  was 
no  uncommon  thing  to  see  Chinese  prisoners  refuse  to  do  tasks 
which  they  considered  beneath  them,  and  which  they  could 
only  be  induced  to  perform  after  having  seen  the  heads  of  a 
few  of  their  comrades  fall  under  the  sword.  These  very  people 
who  prefer  death  rather  than  derogate  from  their  dignity  are  the 
same  who  have  often  been  seen  throwing  down  their  arms  on 
the  battlefield.  It  is  but  fair  to  add  that  it  is  the  military 
mandarins  or  officers  who  generally  give  the  signal  for  a stam- 
pede. Possibly,  if  commanded  by  other  officers,  the  Chinese, 
* Quoted  by  Mr.  Henry  Norman,  ‘ Peoples  and  Politics  of  the  Far  East.’ 

222 


CHINA 


with  their  wonderful  power  of  enduring  privation  and  callous- 
ness for  death,  would  eventually  form  an  admirable  army 
which,  even  if  it  were  unable  to  defend  China  against  foreign 
Powers,  would  certainly  prove  a valuable  ally  to  one  or  other 
of  them.* 

The  practice  of  infanticide,  especially  of  female  infants,  is 
another  example  of  the  different  w’ays  in  which  the  Chinese 
and  Europeans  regard  life  and  family  ties.  With  us  the  love 
of  parents  for  children  is  often  greater  than  that  of  children 
for  their  parents  ; but  in  China  it  is  quite  the  reverse.  Ac- 
cording to  Confucius,  filial  piety  was  the  noblest  of  virtues, 
indeed,  the  fountain-head  of  them  all,  and  it  is  the  one  which 
his  compatriots  still  practise  most  assiduously.  Among  the 
lower  orders,  however,  this  virtue  is  confined  to  the  support 
of  parents ; but  this  is  a duty  never  neglected.  Among  the 
twenty-four  famous  examples  of  filial  piety  is  mentioned  the 
case  of  a man  who,  at  the  very  moment  that  he  was  about  to 
bury  his  little  three-year-old  girl  alive  because  he  could  not 
afford  to  keep  her  as  well  as  his  old  mother,  had  his  infant 
saved  by  the  unexpected  discovery  of  a treasure  purposely 
placed  in  the  intended  grave  by  a good  genie,  who  was  eager  to 
reward  so  beautiful  an  instance  of  filial  piety.  A still  greater  sin 
against  this  virtue  is  that  of  not  possessing  male  posterity ; for 
then  the  family  becomes  extinct,  and  the  ancestors  are  deprived 
of  those  sacrifices  to  which  they  have  a right,  and  which  it  is  the 
first  duty  of  every  well-thinking  man  to  offer  them  at  regular 
intervals.  Marriages  are  contracted  very  early,  and  there  is 
no  stronger  evhience  needed  against  a wife  to  obtain  her  divorce 
than  that  she  has  not  had  a son.  The  doctrine  of  filial  piety 
as  it  is  understood  by  the  Chinese,  and  the  worship  of  ancestors, 
which  is  its  highest  expression,  have  their  good  as  well  as  their 
bad  side.  It  forms  the  principal  mainstay  of  that  useless 
system  of  admiration  of  an  irrevocable  past  in  which  everything 
is  supposed  to  have  been  better  than  it  can  possibly  be  to-day, 
and  which  of  necessity  turns  the  people  of  the  Celestial  Empire 
from  all  desire  for  progress,  because  to  do  so  would  be  an 
outrage  to  an  ancestry  whose  wisdom  can  never  be  surpassed. 

If  this  belief  produces  unfortunate  social  consequences,  it 

* The  admirable  and  even  gallant  conduct  of  the  Chinese  Regiment  from 
Wei-hai-wei  under  its  British  officers  in  the  recent  severe  fighting  about 
Tien-tsin  affords  a striking  confirmation  of  M.  Leroy- Beaulieu’s  words. — 

H.  N. 


223 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


at  the  same  time  serves  to  consolidate  family  ties ; but  ever, 
so  it  is  pernicious,  especially  with  respect  to  the  condition 
of  women.  The  lot  of  Chinese  women  is  certainly  not  a 
happy  one.  Lodging  rather  than  living  with  her  husband, 
under  his  parents’  roof,  the  young  wife  is  never  allowed  to  see 
her  own  family,  excepting  at  certain  fixed  periods  prearranged 
by  custom.  In  their  earlier  years  married  women  in  China 
are  exposed  to  the  caprices  and  rebuffs  of  a shrewish  mother- 
in-law,  who  is  the  tyrant  of  the  family,  and  whose  humble 
servants  the  daughters-in-law  are  expected  to  be.  For  all 
this,  they  enjoy  a certain  amount  of  liberty,  for  they  are  neither 
cloistered  nor  veiled ; but  they  very  rarely  leave  their  house, 
a state  of  semi-seclusion  which  does  not  prevent  their  morals 
being  often  very  indifferent.  ‘ In  a district  near  mine,’  an 
American  missionary  at  Fo-kien  assured  me,  ‘ there  are  very 
few  husbands  who  are  not  deceived  by  their  wives  ; and  in  the 
one  which  is  under  my  direction  the  state  of  morality,  or  rather 
of  immorality,  is  pretty  nearly  the  same.’  Theoretically  speaking, 
adultery  in  a Chinese  woman  is  considered  a very  grave  crime. 
As  for  the  husband,  he  is  not  expected  to  practise  fidelity.  The 
average  Chinaman  delights  in  obscenity,  and  revels  in  improper 
stories  and  jests ; and  when  he  has  a little  money  to  spare, 
spends  it  very  freely  in  the  loosest  company.  Those  places  of 
entertainment  where  Venus  reigns  supreme  are  not,  as  in 
Japan,  situated  in  the  best  and  most  brilliantly  lighted  quarter 
of  the  town,  for  such  of  my  readers  who  have  visited  Canton 
may  possibly  remember  to  have  had  pointed  out  to  them  the 
‘ flower-boats  ’ — floating  constructions  two  stories  high,  whose 
internal  decorations  are  of  the  most  magnificent. 

The  national  vice  of  the  Chinese,  however,  is  gambling,  and 
it  is  one  very  few  of  them  can  resist.  In  his  interesting 
monograph  on  Peking,  Mgr.  Favier  tells  us  how  the  beggars  in 
rags  will  stake  their  last  scrap  of  clothing.  Certain  fanatics 
will  stake  their  wives  and  children,  and  men  have  been  known 
to  wager  away  their  finger-joints.  A young  Christian,  who  was 
an  inveterate  gambler,  on  one  occasion  staked  and  lost  his  wife, 
who  was  only  twenty  years  of  age,  for  the  large  sum  of  15s. 
The  missionary  paid  the  debt  and  returned  the  young  woman 
to  her  mother.  A few  months  afterwards  she  rejoined  her 
husband,  and,  adds  the  author,  with  the  authority  of  his  thirty- 
eight  years  of  missionary  life  in  China,  ‘ in  all  probability  he 
has  staked  and  lost  her  again.’ 

224 


CHINA 


Intemperance,  on  the  other  hand,  is  extremely  rare ; but 
those  who  would  be  drunkards  in  Europe,  Mgr.  Favier  assured 
me  when  I was  in  Peking,  are  opium-smokers  in  China,  where 
he  estimates  that  about  one-fifth  of  the  population  of  the  towns 
give  themselves  over  to  this  horrible  practice.  In  the  country 
districts  the  number  is  very  much  less,  and  another  missionary, 
who  lives  at  Fo-kien  in  Southern  China,  estimates  it  at  not 
more  than  five  per  cent.  The  habit  of  opium-smoking  is  very 
widely  spread  among  the  upper  classes  and  the  literati ; but  its 
effects  are  not  so  pronounced  among  the  rich  as  among  the 
poor,  who,  by  reason  of  bad  diet,  are  less  prepared  to  resist 
its  effects,  especially  as  they  generally  indulge  in  this  vice  in 
their  leisure  hours  in  the  most  dreadful  dens,  and,  moreover, 
smoke  a very  inferior  quality  of  opium.  A young  man  who 
begins  to  indulge  in  this  pernicious  habit  in  his  twentieth  year 
usually  shuffles  off  this  mortal  coil  before  he  is  twenty-two.' 
The  vices  of  the  Chinese  do  not  particularly  shock  foreigners 
who  live  among  them,  for  they  are  not  obliged  to  see  them ; 
but  it  is  otherwise  with  their  universal  and  repellently  filthy 
habits  and  intense  love  of  all  kinds  of  horrible  noises,  which 
they  indulge  in  on  every  possible  occasion,  be  it  a sad  or 
merry  one,  a marriage  or  a funeral,  at  festivals  as  well  s at 
fires.  What  exasperates  a European,  however,  more  than  any- 
thing else  are  the  vulgar  superstitions  which  replace  among  the 
Celestials  the  spirit  of  religion,  which  is  quite  absent,  and  which 
constitute  another  hindrance  to  progress.  Their  strange  ideas 
with  respect  to  feng-shui,  or  geomancy,  often  upset  the  least 
attempt  at  introducing  any  improvement  even  in  European  con- 
cessions or  in  such  cities  as  Hong-Kong  and  Singapore.  Then, 
again,  the  disposition  of  the  Chinese  mind  does  not  admit  of 
general  or  abstract  ideas,  and  repudiates  all  sense  of  the  ideal, 
and,  in  a word,  is  sterilized  by  such  absolute  materialism  as  to 
shock  even  the  most  cynical  of  Europeans.  Take  them  for  all 
in  all,  therefore,  the  Celestials  may  be  described  as  a not  parti- 
cularly seductive  or  sympathetic  people,  all  the  less  so  as  their 
ugly  appearance  is  not  compensated  for  by  the  charm  of 
manner  which  renders  the  Japanese  so  agreeable  and  which 
enables  them  to  gild  even  their  vices. 

The  Chinese,  however,  have  certain  great  qualities  which 
are  not  precisely  amiable,  in  spite  of  their  extreme  politeness, 
a matter  rather  of  ceremony  than  of  sincerity.  These  qualities 
are  of  a serious  nature  : patience,  perseverance,  hard  work,  the 

225  Q 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


greatest  aptitude  for  commercial  pursuits,  industry,  economy, 
singular  resistive  power,  and  respect  for  parents  and  old  age, 
to  which  may  be  added  a remarkably  contented  frame  of  mind. 
Therefore,  even  if  the  Chinese  Government  presents  every 
indication  of  decadence,  it  would  be  unjust  to  say  the  same  of 
its  energetic  and  hard-working  subjects.  Unquestionably  the 
Government  is  not  the  only  thing  that  needs  reforming  in 
China.  There  is  the  secular  habit  of  always  looking  to  the 
past  for  a type  of  perfection,  which  produces  a certain  atrophy 
of  the  Chinese  intelligence,  depriving  it  of  all  elasticity,  origin- 
ality and  power  of  invention,  and  making  it  only  capable  of 
servile  imitation,  lacking  even  discernment — a fact  which  is 
admirably  illustrated  in  the  well-known  story  of  the  tailor  to 
whom  a European  sent  an  old  pair  of  breeches  in  order  that 
he  might  copy  them.  This  he  did  so  conscientiously  that  he 
cut  a hole  in  the  exact  place  where  there  had  been  one  in  the 
well-worn  pair  which  had  been  entrusted  to  him.  In  the  same 
order  of  ideas  is  an  instance  supplied  me  by  the  Jesuit  Fathers 
at  Sicawei,  near  Shanghai,  who  showed  me  some  drawings 
executed  by  young  Chinese  students,  intended  for  the  plates 
to  be  introduced  in  a publication  on  the  fauna  of  the  Far  East. 
They  included  some  drawings  of  the  skeletons  of  animals,  which, 
however,  were  disfigured,  notwithstanding  the  entreaties  of  the 
Fathers,  with  certain  accidental  blots  and  marks  that  appeared 
upon  the  models.  It  is  not  impossible  to  induce  the  Chinese 
to  learn  new  habits,  but  it  is  almost  impossible  to  induce  them 
to  correct  those  which  have  been  bequeathed  to  them  by  their 
ancestors.  It  is  possible  to  teach  them  how  to  work  modern 
machinery,  but  no  power,  human  or  divine,  could  teach  a 
Chinese  carpenter  to  work  otherwise  than  he  has  been  trained 
to  do.  At  the  orphanage  at  Sicawei,  under  the  direction  of 
the  Jesuits,  I was  shown  over  the  carpentry  department,  and 
was  surprised  to  find  each  bench  occupied  by  only  one  work- 
man. The  Father  who  showed  me  over  the  school  informed 
me  that  it  was  absolutely  impossible  to  induce  two  workmen 
to  occupy  the  same  bench.  The  younger  orphans  saw  the 
older  children  and  the  adults  who  had  remained  in  the  service 
of  the  mission  working  thus,  and  insisted  upon  doing  likewise. 

The  awakening  of  any  sense  of  originality  or  invention  in 
the  mind  of  this  people,  by  whom  these  qualities  have  been  lost 
for  the  simple  reason  that  they  have  been  systematically  trained 
to  look  backwards  rather  than  forwards,  will  be  a work  of 

226 


CHINA 


centuries,  and  only  brought  about  by  prolonged  contact  with 
the  peoples  and  ideas  of  the  West,  and  this  contact  is  only 
now  beginning.  Before  it  produces  its  full  effects  upon  the 
race  it  will  doubtless  do  so  upon  the  land  of  China  itself,  if 
permission  can  only  be  obtained  to  exploit  the  great  natural 
wealth  which  lies  undisturbed  beneath  the  soil  of  this  enor- 
mous Empire,  and  is  thus  lost  to  humanity.  If  the  work 
of  developing  the  economic  resources  of  China  be  undertaken 
in  a spirit  of  selfish  interest,  it  will  nevertheless  very  consider- 
ably ameliorate  the  lot  of  the  Chinese  people,  if  only  by  ex- 
tending their  field  of  activity,  which  is  now  limited  to  agri- 
culture and  small  industries.  It  will  allow  them,  for  example, 
to  exploit  the  subsoil,  which  is  as  much  neglected  in  the 
Celestial  Empire  as  the  soil  itself  has  been  perfected  by 
exceedingly  skilful  farming.  If,  as  we  believe,  the  great  in- 
dustries resulting  from  modern  scientific  discoveries  have  really 
contributed  to  better  the  condition  of  the  people  of  Europe, 
surely  their  introduction  into  China  should  be  most  beneficial 
to  the  inhabitants  of  that  vast  Empire. 


Q 2 


227 


CHAPTER  V] 

FOREIGNERS  IN  CHINA  — THE  ATTITUDE  OF  THE  CHINH^E 
TOWARDS  WESTERN  CIVILIZATION 

Concessions  successively  made  by  China  to  foreigners  after  the  Wars  of 
1842,  1858-60,  and  1895-98 — Increasing  tension  between  the  Chinese 
and  Europeans  in  consequence  of  the  latter  desiring  to  extend  their 
action — Refusal  of  Europeans  to  conform  to  Chinese  usages — Frequent 
breaches  made  by  them  against  the  rules  and  ti national  customs  of 
the  Chinese — Contempt  in  which  Western  civilization  is  held  by  the 
Chinese  notwithstanding  their  acknowledgment  of  its  power  and 
material  advancement — This  hostile  spirit  more  marked  among  the 
literati,  who  direct  public  opinion,  than  among  the  people. 

The  position  of  foreigners  in  the  Middle  Kingdom  has 
been  defined  by  various  formal  conventions,  the  first  of  which 
was  the  Treaty  of  Nanking,  signed  between  England  and  China 
after  the  war  of  1842,  known  in  history  as  the  Opium  War. 
This  was  followed  in  1844  by  other  treaties  upon  the  same 
subject  with  France  and  the  United  States,  and  still  later  with 
other  nations ; in  1858  the  treaties  of  Tien-tsin,  which  were 
concluded  with  France  and  England  after  a short  war,  but 
which  were  not  ratified  until  i860,  after  a much  more  serious 
campaign  and  the  entry  of  the  allied  troops  into  Peking,  greatly 
ameliorated  the  condition  of  foreigners  in  the  Celestial  Empire. 
Lastly,  in  1895,  the  treaty  of  Shimonosaki,  imposed  upon  China 
by  victorious  Japan,  gave  fresh  facilities  to  foreign  commerce. 
It  is  a characteristic  fact,  however,  that  no  serious  concession 
has  been  obtained  from  China  until  after  a disastrous  war,  the 
Government  of  Peking  never  ceding  to  persuasion,  only  to 
force. 

Since  the  sixteenth  century  Europeans  have  been  able,  as 
the  Arabs  and  Malays  had  before  them,  to  carry  on  commerce 

228 


CHINA 


with  Canton  without  being  molested,  simply  because  they  did 
not  show  any  intention  of  extending  their  commerce  further. 
But  in  the  second  quarter  of  the  present  century  they  be- 
came more  numerous  and  exacting,  and  tension  began  to 
manifest  itself.  The  pride  of  the  Westerners,  who  were  more 
than  ever  convinced  of  the  superiority  of  their  civilization, 
and  whose  progress  at  home  was  making  giant  strides,  burned 
to  impose  their  ideas  upon  the  whole  world,  and  thereby 
wounded  the  equally  great  pride  of  the  Chinese,  stub- 
bornly attached  to  those  very  ancient  customs  so  haughtily 
despised  by  the  barbarians,  as  they  were  pleased  to  call  us. 
The  port  of  Canton,  consecrated  by  tradition  as  the  exchange- 
mart  between  foreigners  and  natives,  no  longer  sufficed  for 
European  ambition,  and  a clamour  was  raised  to  get  rid  of  the 
twelve  merchants,  or  hongs,  to  whom  the  Chinese  Government 
had  conceded  the  monopoly  of  trading  with  the  outer  world. 
The  foreigners,  moreover,  demanded  the  right  to  deal  with 
whomsoever  they  pleased,  and  refused  to  submit  any  longer  to 
the  arbitrary  taxation  and  treatment  to  which  they  had  hitherto 
been  subjected  by  the  local  authorities.  These  demands  and 
others  of  a similar  character,  which  appear  to  us  perfectly 
reasonable,  were  considered  exorbitant  by  the  Chinese.  To 
our  incessant  protests  they  answered  exactly  as  they  had  done 
twenty — nay,  fifty — years  before,  that  we  wished  to  compel 
them  to  do  in  their  own  country  exactly  as  we  chose,  whereas, 
considering  that  we  were  their  guests,  the  contrary  should  be 
the  case,  and  that  we  ought  to  submit  to  their  ways,  however 
objectionable  they  might  seem  to  us,  and  even  contrary  to  the 
interests  and  development  of  our  commerce.  This  is  precisely 
what  Europe  to-day,  as  then,  refuses  to  admit,  unless  the 
Chinese  very  considerably  mend  their  ways,  being  of  opinion 
that  so  vast  a country  has  no  right  to  refuse  to  allow  its 
wealth  being  exploited  for  the  benefit  of  humanity,  and  that 
if  it  cannot,  either  through  want  of  goodwill  or  of  the 
necessary  means,  turn  it  to  account  itself,  it  should  allow 
others  who  possess  implements  perfected  for  the  purpose  to 
use  them.  In  short,  Europe  demands  the  right  not  only  to 
trade,  but  also  to  exploit,  and  she  intends  to  have  it,  whatever 
may  be  the  consequences. 

This  radical  difference  in  looking  at  the  same  thing  is  the 
origin  of  every  difficulty  that  exists  between  the  Powers  and 
the  Celestial  Empire.  The  peoples  of  the  West,  once  they 

SS9 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


have  made  up  their  minds  that  a thing  is  likely  to  further  their 
interests,  insist  upon  its  being  carried  into  efect  whether  the 
Chinese  like  it  or  not,  and  care  very  little  whether  they  offend 
the  prejudices  or  even  the  sanctity  of  Chinese  tradition.  It 
is  not  merely  in  matters  of  commercial  transactions  that 
foreigners  behave  thus,  but  also  with  regard  to  religion.  We 
profess  the  most  profound  admiration  and  respect  for  those 
men  who  at  the  risk  of  their  lives  bring  the  Gospel  to  those 
who  know  it  not,  and  who  sacrihce  everything  in  the  hope  of 
saving  souls,  and  we  are  thoroughly  convinced  of  the  vast 
superiority  of  the  teach.ng  of  Jesus  Christ  over  that  of  Con- 
fucius. Christianity,  however,  upsets  not  only  the  traditions, 
but  also  the  foundations  of  Chinese  society.  No  Government 
of  Europe  would  tolerate  a religion  which  advocated  polygamy, 
and  that  of  the  United  States  rigorously  opposes  the  spread  of 
Mormonism.  We  must  not  therefore  be  surprised  if  the 
Chinese  do  not  behold  with  a friendly  eye  a religion  which 
opposes  their  great  doctrine  of  the  cultus  of  ancestors,  and  if 
they  consider  it  nothing  short  of  sacrilege  and  well  calculated 
to  overthrow  morality  and  law,  and  infinitely  worse  from  their 
point  of  view  than  polygamy  is  from  ours.  The  employ- 
ment of  female  missionaries  by  certain  Protestant  sects  is 
another  scandal,  and  the  sight  of  young  women  living  under 
the  same  roof  as  men  who  are  not  their  husbands  gives  rise 
in  their  minds  to  a train  of  thought  the  reverse  of  edifying. 
It  matters  little  that  the  worship  of  ancestors  is  but  mere 
outward  form,  and  that  the  lives  of  the  missionaries  are  without 
any  reproach:  ancient  traditions  and  customs  are  violated,  and 
to  these  the  average  Chinaman  holds  far  more  tenaciously  than 
he  does  to  the  truths  they  conceal. 

The  utter  disregard  paid  by  Europeans  to  even  the  most 
cherished  customs  of  the  Chinese,  and  the  vast  difference 
which  exists  between  the  two  civilizations,  together  with  the 
sense  of  superiority  which  both  peoples  with  perfect  good  faith 
entertain  for  themselves,  is  doubtless  at  the  bottom  of  that 
bitter  feeling  of  contempt  that  causes  every  Chinaman  to 
despise  as  well  as  to  hate  the  intruders.  They  look  upon 
them  as  so  many  barbarians,  although  Article  51  of  the  Treaty 
of  Tien-tsin  officially  ordained  the  proscription  of  the  particular 
character  describing  foreigners  by  this  objectionable  word. 
Our  most  complicated  and  wonderful  scientific  instruments  are 
not  considered  by  the  Chinese  as  criterions  of  our  superiority, 

230 


CHINA 


and  they  recognise  us  to  be  skilful  workmen  and  clever 
jugglers,  but  otherwise  only  vulgar  and  ill-educated  fellows, 
and  our  lack  of  acquaintance  with  their  ancient  lore  and 
literature  brings  a smile  of  pity  and  contempt  to  their  bland 
countenances.  They  attach  little  or  no  importance  to  our 
inventions.  ‘ I quite  understand,’  said  Prince  Kong  to  a 
foreign  Ambassador  who  had  just  explained  to  him  the  theory 
and  practice  of  railway  travelling,  ‘ that  in  Europe  you  should 
employ  iron  rails  to  transport  you  from  one  end  of  your 
country  to  another.  Here  we  obtain  the  same  effect  with  our 
waggons.  We  may  not  travel  so  expeditiously ; but,  then,  we 
are  never  in  such  a hurry.’  This  quaint  observation  was  spoken 
twenty-five  years  ago,  but  it  might  easily  be  made  to-day  : the 
condition  of  mind  which  inspired  it  is  identical  and  un- 
changed. 

The  Chinese  may  bow  to  our  power,  but  it  does  not  inspire 
them  with  the  least  awe.  They  entertain  for  us  about  the  same 
agreeable  sentiment  that  the  traveller  does  for  the  footpad  who 
suddenly  puts  a pistol  to  his  head  and  demands  his  money  or 
his  life.  And  as  this  same  ill-used  traveller,  in  order  to  avoid 
a repetition  of  the  assault,  if  he  has  to  pass  that  way,  procures 
the  same  arms  as  his  aggressor,  so  the  Chinese  now  and  again 
appropriate  some  of  our  weapons  of  defence  without  knowing 
how  to  use  them ; but,  nevertheless,  they  remain  thoroughly 
convinced  as  to  the  superiority  of  their  civilization.  There 
can  be  no  doubt  that  if  they  were  left  to  themselves,  and 
European  influence  and  pressure  suddenly  ceased,  the  Chinese 
would  quickly  pull  up  the  telegraph-poles  and  the  few  miles  of 
rail  which  with  infinite  patience  and  trouble  have  been  laid, 
close  their  ports,  and  efface  every  trace  of  the  detested  innova- 
tions of  the  ‘ barbarians.’ 

This  would  naturally  be  the  act  of  the  Government.  As  to 
the  people,  it  will  continue  to  use  the  facilities  introduced  by 
Western  civilization.  The  boats  which  ply  along  the  coasts 
and  up  the  Yang-tsze-Kiang  are  crowded  with  native  passengers, 
who  apparently  enjoy  the  trip,  and  who  pay  the  better  share  of 
the  profits  made  by  the  various  steam  navigation  companies,  and 
the  trains  between  Tien  tsin  and  Peking  are  always  crowded. 
The  Chinese  also  know  perfectly  well  how  to  appreciate 
European  administration,  and  three  hundred  thousand  Chinese 
live  upon  the  French,  English,  and  American  concessions  at 
Shanghai,  two  hundred  thousand  at  Hong-Kong,  which  was 

2^1 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 

only  inhabited  by  a few  fishermen  before  the  English  occupa- 
tion, and  all  the  large  towns  belonging  to  the  European 
colonies  in  the  vicinity  of  China — Vladivostok,  Manila,  Saigon, 
Singapore,  Batavia — are  practically  Chinese  towns.  They 
like  to  have  their  property  and  their  commercial  interests  pro- 
tected, and  strongly  object  to  being  exploited  and  harassed  as 
they  are  under  their  own  Government.  At  the  time  of  the 
occupation  of  Manchuria  by  the  Mikado’s  troops,  an  English 
missionary  who  had  long  resided  in  the  country  assured  me 
that  the  Chinese  were  very  glad  to  escape  from  the  ‘ squeezee  ’ 
system,  and  from  the  many  vexations  to  which  they  had  been 
subjected  by  the  mandarins,  and  were  amazed  to  see  the 
Japanese  pay  for  everything  they  required. 

The  Chinese  are  not,  therefore,  unappreciative  of  our  civiliza- 
tion, and  since  we  afflict  them  with  our  presence,  they  think  it 
wise  to  profit  by  the  material  advantages  which  we  have  intro- 
duced among  them ; but,  with  few  exceptions,  doubtless  they 
would  prefer  the  loss  of  these  advantages  to  our  company, 
and  they  never  cease  to  despise  ,us.  From  the  moment  that 
they  can  read  they  go  to  their  old  books  as  to  a fountain-head, 
whence  they  drink  intoxicating  draughts  of  pride  and  vanity, 
and  of  profound  contempt  for  all  that  is  not  of  the  wisdom  of 
Confucius. 

After  all,  it  is  not  by  means  of  the  ignorant  classes,  but 
through  the  initiative  of  a few  thinkers,  that  progressive  ideas 
gradually  filter  into  a country  and  reform  it.  Unluckily,  in 
the  Chinese  Empire,  owing  to  a defective  system  of  educa- 
tion, the  very  class  which  ought  to  benefit  their  fellows — the 
literati — is  precisely  that  which  is  the  most  obstinately  retro- 
gressive. 

The  gross  superstitions,  too,  which  are  entertained  by  the 
people  in  the  interior  of  China  against  foreigners  form  another 
barrier  to  an  advance  movement.  That  the  lower  classes 
should  believe  that  the  missionaries  pull  out  the  eyes  of  little 
children  and  use  their  bowels  as  the  ingredients  of  infernal 
and  magical  concoctions,  or  that  our  doctors  spread  the  pest 
whenever  we  want  a war,  is  not  much  to  be  wondered  at,  for 
the  same  things  have  been  repeated  in  Astrakhan  and  in  some 
of  the  Russian  provinces  whenever  there  has  been  a rumour  of 
an  epidemic.  But  what  is  really  very  grave  is  that  the  literati, 
who  are  so  all-powerful  in  China,  foster  these  superstitions, 
and  even  spread  them  broadcast  among  the  people  in  order 

232 


CHINA 


the  better  to  keep  up  the  feeling  of  hatred  which  they  ought  to 
attenuate.  At  the  bottom  of  all  the  risings  against  the  mis- 
sionaries are  the  mandarins  and  the  literati.  The  great  influence 
which  these  men  exercise  over  the  people,  and  their  abhorrence 
of  Western  civilization,  is  the  real  cause  why  no  progress  has 
hitherto  been  made  in  the  Chinese  Empire. 


=33 


CHAPTER  VII 


THE  POSITION  AND  WORK  OF  FOREIGNERS  IN  CHINA 

The  privileges  of  foreigners  in  China — The  open  ports  and  the  concessions 
— Great  extension  of  privileges  granted  to  foreigners  by  the  treaty 
of  Shimonosaki  (1895) — Opening  of  fresh  ports — Facilities  conceded 
to  commerce,  and  the  right  of  establishing  factories  in  the  Treaty 
Ports — The  speedy  effects  of  these  concessions — Silk  industries — 
Chinese  workmen  : rise  in  their  salaries  — Prospects  of  Chinese 
industry — Fresh  concessions  granted  in  1898— Opening  of  the  water- 
ways— Railways  and  mines — Great  expectations  resulting  from  these 
additional  treaties  — The  likins,  or  native  Custom-houses  — Their 
oppressive  exactions — Slow  development  of  foreign  commerce  in 
China — Necessity  for  Europeans  to  penetrate  into  the  interior  and 
take  their  affairs  into  their  own  hands — Chinese  resistance  to  this  pro- 
posal. 

Foreigners  who  live  in  China,  with  the  exception  of  the 
missionaries,  are  at  present  penned  up  in  the  twenty-six  open 
ports,  to  which  may  be  added  six  other  towns  or  markets, 
situated  on  the  frontiers  of  Indo-China^  assimilated  to  the  free 
ports,  but  doing  a very  limited  trade.  In  each  of  these  so- 
called  open  ports*  spaces  have  been  let  on  long  leases,  or 

* The  following  is  the  list  of  the  Treaty  Ports : To  the  north  of  the 
Blue  River,  Niu-chwang,  Tien-tsin,  Chefoo,  and  near  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Shanghai  and  its  annex,  Wusung.  On  the  Yang-tsze-Kiang  ; Chin-Kiang, 
Nanking,  Wuhu,  Kiu-kiang,  Sha-shi,  Hankow,  It-chang,  Chung-king — in 
all  eight  river  stations,  of  which  Nanking  is  not  really  ‘ open,’  although 
mentioned  in  the  French  treaty  of  Tien-tsin.  Not  far  from  Shanghai  is 
Su-chow,  on  the  inland  canals.  On  the  coast  south  of  the  Blue  River  are 
Hangchow,  Ning-po,  Wenchow,  Foochow,  Amoy,  Swatow.  At  the  mouth 
of  the  West  River  is  Canton,  and  higher  up  the  river  Sam-shui,  Wuchow, 
and  since  the  spring  of  1899  Nanning-fu.  On  theGulfof  Tongking:  Pakhui, 
and  in  the  island  of  Hainan,  Hoi-how.  The  open  towns  on  the  frontier  of 
Indo-China  are  : Lung-chau,  Mongtse,  Ho  Kau,  Szemao,  Tchoun-ning-fu, 
and  a sixth,  Tong-hing,  is  not  as  yet  occupied.  The  open  ports  were  in 
1842,  according  to  the  Treaty  of  Nanking,  only  five  in  number,  but  were 
increased  by  the  treaty  of  Tien-tsin  to  nineteen  ; others  were  opened  by 

234 


CHINA 


even  sold  to  foreign  Powers — England,  France,  the  United 
States  and  of  late  years  even  Germany,  who  has  acquired  a 
concession  at  Tien  tsin,  where,  by  the  way,  Japan  also  has  one. 
Although  these  concessions  are  on  Chinese  territory,  they  are 
considered  as  so  many  small  republics,  independent  of  the 
native  authorities,  and  administered  by  Europeans,  who  reside 
there  under  the  protection  of  their  Consuls,  who  hold  both 
judicial  and  executive  powers.  In  these  ports,  protected  by 
European  law,  is  concentrated  the  whole  foreign  commerce  of 
China. 

The  appearance  of  these  treaty  ports  varies  according  to 
their  importance,  from  the  few  houses  surrounded  by  walled-in 
gardens,  built  on  the  sands  of  Pakhui  to  the  flourishing  cosmo- 
politan port  of  Shanghai,  whose  aspect  is  admirably  calculated 
to  flatter  the  vanity  of  Europeans.  Once  the  bar  of  Wusung 
is  passed,  after  some  hours’  journey  down  the  Blue  River,  whose 
shores  are  covered  with  monotonous  rice  and  cotton  fields,  the 
traveller  might  easily  imagine  that  he  was  in  Lancashire,  so 
great  is  the  number  of  factory  chimneys  that  come  into  sight. 
The  landing-place,  or  Bund,  the  principal  thoroughfare  of  the 
town,  which  follows  the  quay,  is  lined  on  the  one  side  with 
trees,  and  on  the  other  by  magnificent  houses,  built  in  the 
European  fashion,  the  offices  of  the  principal  banks,  steamship 
companies,  etc.  The  other  streets,  inhabited  by  Europeans, 
although  not  very  straight  or  broad,  run  either  parallel  to 
the  Bund  or  else  meet  it  at  some  point  or  other.  Further 
inland  is  the  Chinese  quarter  (within  the  concession),  with 
its  open  shops,  monstrous  and  gaudy  signboards,  and  its 
fragile  paper  lanterns,  fairly  well  kept,  however  — thanks  to 
European  supervision — and  forming  a marked  contrast  in  this 
respect  to  the  other  native  quarter  beyond  the  concession, 
which  is  absolutely  filthy.  Once  outside  the  town,  we  cross  the 
cricket-field,  the  racecourse,  the  lawn-tennis  court,  and  reach 
Bubbling  VVell  Road  and  other  wide  avenues,  fringed  with  the 
beautiful  villas,  surrounded  by  gardens,  belonging  to  the  wealthy 
European  residents. 

Before  the  Chino- Japanese  War  foreigners  only  had  the  right 

the  treaty  of  Shimonosaki  in  1895,  and  by  the  convention  with  England 
signed  in  1897.  A more  recent  treaty  with  this  Power  (1898)  promises,  but 
without  fixed  date,  however,  the  opening  of  three  new  ports  : Kin-chau  in 
Manchuria,  Fu-ning  in  Fo-kien,  and  Yo-chau  in  Hu-nan  (opened  in 
December,  1899). 


23s 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


to  carry  on  their  commercial  undertakings  in  the  open  ports, 
and  had  to  have  a passport  in  order  to  travel  in  the  interior. 
Isolated  as  much  as  possible  from  the  native  population,  they 
could  traffic  with  the  Chinese  only  on  the  condition  that  they 
never  attempted  to  alter  any  of  the  native  methods  of  pro- 
duction, or  introduced  any  European  innovations,  or  en- 
deavoured to  exploit  a single  one  of  the  innumerable  natural 
resources  of  the  country. 

On  the  other  hand,  nothing  was  to  be  expected  from  private 
initiative  or  from  the  Government,  which  latter  would  unques- 
tionably have  vetoed  any  improvement,  and  only  reluctantly 
permitted,  on  account  of  its  political  value,  the  creation  of 
the  telegraph-line  connecting  Peking  with  the  extremities  of 
the  Empire.  In  1877  the  Europeans  had  actually  to  pull  up 
the  rails  laid  down  on  the  short  line  between  Shanghai  and 
Wusung,  and  though  the  Chinese  since  1889  have  pretended 
to  consider  the  construction  of  a line  from  Hankow  to  Peking, 
it  has  only  been  with  the  object  of  misleading  the  Europeans. 
No  progress  is  possible  in  China  under  these  unfavourable 
conditions,  and  the  antiquated  methods  of  the  natives  continue 
to  hamper  all  commercial  and  financial  prosperity. 

The  treaty  of  Shimonosaki,  signed  in  1895  at  the  close  of 
the  war  between  China  and  Japan,  effected  some  very  im- 
portant changes  in  this  respect,  and  in  virtue  of  the  most- 
favoured-nation clause,  inserted  in  the  treaties  with  the  Powers, 
opened  out  a better  prospect  for  foreigners  of  every  nation- 
ality, who  were  thus  able  to  benefit  by  the  advantages  con- 
ceded to  the  Japanese.  Article  6 of  this  important  document 
stipulated  the  opening  of  several  new  ports,  and  permits  steam 
navigation  along  the  coasts  and  up  the  rivers  and  canals 
leading  thereunto.  It  goes  on  to  declare  that  foreigners 
may  visit  the  interior  to  purchase  or  sell  merchandise,  and  that 
Japanese  subjects  may  establish  depots  for  the  same  wherever 
they  like  without  paying  any  extra  tax,  and  erect  factories  of 
all  sorts  in  the  Chinese  open  towns  and  ports,  and  import 
into  China  all  kinds  of  machinery  on  payment  of  a fixed 
tariff.  Goods  manufactured  by  Japanese  subjects  on  Chinese 
territory  should  be  placed  on  the  same  footing  with  respect 
to  inland  and  transit  duties  and  other  taxes,  charges,  and 
facilities  for  warehousing,  etc.,  in  the  interior,  as  goods  im- 
ported into  China  by  other  foreigners,  and  enjoy  the  same 
privileges. 


236 


CHINA 


This  clause  is  of  very  great  importance,  since  it  permits 
the  combination  of  highly-perfected  European  machinery  and 
cheap  Chinese  labour  in  the  production  of  articles  the  raw 
materials  for  which,  especially  silks  and  cotton,  can  be  obtained 
in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  the  free  ports.  The  clause 
above  cited  may  appear  at  first  somewhat  extraordinary,  and 
in  any  other  country  but  China  it  would  be  superfluous  to 
stipulate  that  goods  manufactured  in  the  country  itself  should 
not  be  treated  with  less  consideration  than  similar  articles  im- 
ported. But  the  Japanese  negotiators  understood  their  men, 
and  are  perfectly  aware  that  if  they  had  not  inserted  these 
special  clauses,  the  advantages  obtained  would  have  been  an- 
nulled by  the  Chinese  authorities  by  a system  of  arbitrary 
taxation  and  other  vexatious  measures. 

No  very  long  time  elapsed  before  the  advantages  of  Article  6 
of  the  Shimonosaki  Treaty  were  made  strikingly  evident.  In 
three  years’  time  an  entire  district  of  Shanghai  was  occupied 
by  not  less  than  nine  large  cotton  factories,  working  290,000 
spindles,  which  in  1898  were  increased  to  390,000,  and  close 
to  them  presently  rose  some  thirty  silk  factories,  which,  in  due 
time,  will  be  considerably  increased  both  in  numbers  and  im- 
portance. In  the  other  ports  this  industrial  impulse  has  not 
yet  been  much  felt,  except  at  Tien-tsin,  where  a woollen  factory 
has  lately  been  established.  In  that  great  centre  of  industry, 
Shanghai,  a certain  falling-off  has  been  observed  in  this  ex- 
treme briskness,  due  to  over-production,  and  also  to  a very 
legitimate  desire  to  watch  the  results  of  industries  already 
existing  before  launching  into  further  speculations.  Then, 
again,  there  was  a fear  that  wages  might  presently  rise  to  an 
exaggerated  extent. 

The  labour  market  of  China  is  undoubtedly  enormous,  but 
the  supply  does  not  respond  as  readily  to  the  demand  as  in 
Europe,  because  the  distances  are  great  and  the  means  of 
communication  correspondingly  few  and  difficult.  However, 
the  labourers  living  on  the  banks  of  the  Yang-tsze,  who  are 
called  ‘ Water-fowls,’  constantly  flock  into  Shanghai  in  search  of 
work.  They  belong  to  that  class  of  poor  creatures  who  crowd 
the  great  Chinese  cities,  and  whose  only  home  is  their  sampang, 
in  which  an  entire  family  accommodates  itself  in  a space  that 
would  barely  suffice  for  a single  European.  One  can  see  their 
floating  huts  moored  alongside  the  arroyos  that  furrow  the 
suburbs  of  Shanghai.  Once  they  begin  to  earn  a little,  they 

237 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


build  a hut  on  shore,  using  up  the  material  of  their  old  boat- 
house, until  they  can  erect  something  bettev  by  way  of  a dwell- 
ing. Salaries  are  distinctly  rising  in  Shanghai,  and  when  I 
was  there  in  1898  the  factories  were  wrangling  over  their  work- 
men and  w'omen — who  are  in  the  majority — in  consequence 
of  certain  enterprising  but  unscrupulous  managers  of  rival 
firms  intriguing,  by  offers  of  higher  w'ages,  to  induce  the 
most  skilled  to  leave  their  employers  and  come  to  them.  The 
quality  of  the  labour  at  Shanghai  appears  to  be  satisfactory,  at 
least,  so  say  the  different  managers,  and  in  the  manufactories 
which  I visited  I noticed  that  everything  was  scrupulously 
clean  and  orderly,  quite  as  much  so  as  in  any  average 
European  or  American  factory  of  the  same  class.  The  work- 
girls  do  not  live,  as  in  Russia  and  Japan,  and,  indeed, .as  they 
did  formerly  in  England  and  in  other  manufacturing  countries, 
in  a building  near  the  place  of  business  set  apart  for  the 
purpose,  and  at  the  expense  of  the  firm,  but  at  home  with  their 
own  families.  Many  of  them  are  married  women,  and  a great 
number,  instead  of  leaving  their  little  girls  over  ten  years  of 
age  at  home,  request  that  they  may  be  employed,  so  as  to 
remain  under  their  supervision.  They  are  usually  engaged  on 
ve:y  light  work,  such  as  shifting  the  cocoons  in  the  boiling 
w’ater  for  the  weavers.  In  the  silk  factories  I visited  they  were 
allowed  half  an  hour  every  day  for  what  was  known  as  ‘school,’ 
during  which  some  senior  workwoman — the  mother  or  the 
elder  sister — taught  them  the  rudiments  of  their  work.  This 
system  is  excellent,  and  the  managers  declare  themselves  highly 
pleased  with  it,  as  it  is  likely  to  train  good  workers. 

The  working  hours  at  Shanghai  in  the  silk  factories  are 
usually  from  six  in  the  morning  to  six  in  the  evening,  including 
an  hour  and  a half  for  meals.  In  the  silk  manufactories  the 
little  girls  earn  i^d.  per  day  at  first,  which  is  increased  to  2^d. 
after  a short  time.  A clever  workw'oman  gets  about  Qd.  In 
1891-92  the  wages  in  the  same  factory,  which  was  then  on  a 
very  small  scale  and  under  a Chinese  name,  were  about  30  per 
cent.  less.  In  the  larger  factories  the  children  got  2^d.  a day 
and  the  women  from  6d.  to  7d.  During  the  first  few  months 
that  elapsed  after  the  signing  of  the  Treaty  of  Shimonosaki 
salaries  were  on  an  average  about  3d.  As  exchange  has  not 
varied  much  since  then,  the  rise  is  very  considerable.  ‘ The 
women  and  children  now  working  in  the  better  factories  here,’ 
says  the  British  Consul  at  Shanghai  in  his  Report,  1897,  ‘can 


CHINA 


now  earn  from  los.  to  30s.  a month,  which  is  quite  a fortune 
for  people  who  in  the  native  factories  rarely  make  more  than 
4s.  a month,  although  they  work  hard  all  day !’  The  same 
Report  observes  that  in  certain  branches  of  industry  the 
Chinese  workwomen  earn  more  than  would  the  same  class  in 
Italy.  The  under-manager  who  took  me  round  one  of  the 
Shanghai  factories,  a Peruvian  by  birth,  and,  I fancy,  a coloured 
man  by  origin,  judging  from  his  curly  hair  and  high  cheek- 
bones, told  me  that  in  his  boyhood  in  Peru  he  had  earned  2^d. 
a day  at  the  same  business,  which  is  what  is  paid  to  child- 
workers  in  Shanghai. 

It  is,  therefore,  a distinct  mistake  to  imagine  that  China  is 
destined  to  remain  the  land  of  low  salaries.  Some  consider- 
able time  may  elapse  before  wages  reach  the  high  figure 
obtained  in  Europe,  but  there  is  every  prospect  that  in  the 
course  of  time  a very  considerable  rise  will  take  place,  especially 
as  industry  improves,  and  the  demand  for  skilled  labour  in- 
creases. The  Celestials  are  pretty  sure  to  look  after  their  own 
interests  in  the  matter  by  forming  trades  unions.  Strikes  are 
not  unknown  either  in  China  or  Japan. 

These  facts  tend,  I think,  to  dissipate,  if  not  entirely,  at  any 
rate  in  part,  the  illusion  about  the  famous  ‘Yellow  Peril’  which 
has  so  greatly  disturbed  certain  worthy  people.  That  ‘ peril  ’ 
seems  to  me  to  be  still  remote,  for,  even  if  the  people  of  the 
Far  East  did  succeed  in  producing  nearly  all  the  articles  which 
they  now  import  from  Europe,  it  would  necessarily  follow  that 
the  trade  in  them,  being  infinitely  greater  than  it  now  is, 
would  increase  their  profits  likewise  very  considerably.  It  is 
equally  certain  that  the  first  effect  of  the  introduction  into 
China  of  European  industries  must  lead,  as  it  already  has  done, 
to  the  bettering  of  the  condition  of  the  Chinese  labouring 
class,  both  by  augmentation  of  wages  and  consequent  improve- 
ment in  manner  of  living.  If,  therefore,  European  export 
trade  may  apparently  suffer  from  the  manufacturing  of  goods 
hitherto  imported  by  the  Chinese,  such  as  cottons,  for  instance, 
matters  will  balance  themselves  eventually  for  the  simple 
reason  that,  the  richer  the  Chinese  get,  the  more  they  will  buy. 
Japan  has  already  shown  how  the  introduction  of  machinery 
has  created  a new  branch  of  import  of  great  value. 

In  order  to  realize  these  brilliant  prospects,  several  very 
drastic  alterations  in  the  present  position  of  affairs  are 
needed.  The  permission,  granted  at  the  instance  of  Great 

239 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


Britain  in  1898,  allowing  European  navigation  on  the  inland 
waters  of  China,  and  the  concessions  for  the  creation  of 
railways  and  exploitation  of  mines,  may  subsequently  lead  to 
very  remarkable  results,  but  up  to  the  present  they  have  not 
been  entirely  successful  Industrial  activity  is  still  limited  to 
the  free  ports  and  their  immediate  vicinity.  The  reasons  for 
this  state  of  affairs  are  worth  examining,  especially  as  they  illus- 
trate the  determined  opposition  of  the  Chinese  authorities  to 
all  measures  of  reform,  and  also  indicate  many  points  against 
which  Europeans  should  complain. 

The  Chinese  Custom-house  duties  were  determined  accord- 
ing to  the  treaties  as  much  as  possible  5 per  cent,  ad  valorem. 
They  may  therefore  be  safely  described  as  comparatively  light, 
and  are  collected  with  great  regularity  for  the  Imperial  Govern- 
ment on  the  European  system  by  a staff  admirably  organized 
by  Sir  Robert  Hart 

The  undesirability  of  exposing  foreign  merchants  to  the 
arbitrary  and  corrupt  methods  of  Chinese  Custom  - house 
officials  led  to  the  formation  of  an  international  staff  of  officers, 
which  works  perfectly  and  gives  universal  satisfaction.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  great  native  firms  are  most  scrupulously  honest 
in  all  their  transactions,  having  discovered  from  experience 
that  ‘ honesty  is  the  best  policy,’  and  European  merchants  can 
only  praise  their  way  of  transacting  business.  It  is,  therefore, 
neither  on  entering  nor  leaving  China  that  difficulties  occur, 
whether  for  importation  or  exportation.  The  trouble  arises 
in  the  transport  between  the  open  ports  and  the  places  of  con- 
signment or  expedition ; the  principal  grievance  arises  through 
the  system  of  likin.,  or  of  inland  Customs,  whereby  an  arbitrary 
and  variable  scale  of  taxation  is  exacted  on  goods  passing 
through  towns  or  over  the  frontiers  of  the  various  provinces,  or 
even  at  certain  determined  places  on  the  high-roads  and  rivers. 
This  pernicious  system  is  a great  drawback  to  the  expansion  of 
European  trade,  and  gives  rise  to  endless  bother  and  expense. 

‘ Let  us  suppose,’  said  a gentleman,  thoroughly  acquainted 
w’ith  commerce  in  the  Far  East,  at  a meeting  of  the  London 
Chamber  of  Commerce  in  1898,  ‘ that  a train  going  from 
London  to  Newcastle  had  to  be  stopped  three  or  four  times  on 
the  way,  so  that  goods  might  be  overhauled  and  examined  by 
officials  whose  main  object  is  to  extort  as  much  as  they  can  in 
their  own  interests,  and  who  value  goods  arbitrarily  at  sight. 
Imagine,  for  instance,  a consignment  of  skins  getting  damaged 

240 


CHINA 


by  the  rain  through  careless  packing,  and  on  being  weighed 
found  heavier  than  declared  in  the  invoice  : the  result  is,  that 
the  luckless  owner  is  charged,  not  according  to  the  increased 
weight,  but  fined  according  to  his  personal  property,  say  ^^50 
or  ;^ioo  on  ;^i,ooo!  Or,  finally,  what  would  become  of 
British  trade  if  we  had  to  put  up  with  likin  officials,  one  of  whom 
examines  goods  once  in  every  three  days,  and  another  announces 
his  intention  of  only  doing  so  when  ten  trains  have  arrived  ?’ 

There  is  a remedy  for  the  likin  system,  and  that  is  a ‘ transit 
pass  ’ ; but  more  often  than  not,  as  with  most  things  in  China, 
this  is  merely  a theoretical  improvement.  On  payment  of  a 
sum  equal  to  half  the  original  entry  duty,  all  imported  goods 
should  be  considered  free  of  inland  duty.  But  this  regulation 
does  not  work,  and  no  one  avails  himself  of  it,  since  the 
Chinese  very  ingenuously  manage  to  evade  it  by  charging  ‘ a 
duty  on  arrival  at  destination,’  which  comes  to  the  same  thing. 

It  is  not  therefore  surprising  that,  with  all  these  drawbacks, 
in  addition  to  a very  rudimentary  monetary  system,  Chinese 
commerce  only  attains  _;^5o,ooo,ooo,  of  which  ;^2 7, 200,000 
represents  imports,  which  is  very  small  when  one  considers  the 
enormous  size  of  the  country  and  its  great  wealth.  The  half 
of  this  commerce  is  divided  up  between  four  articles : 
;^8,ooo,ooo  cotton  and  ;^4,8oo,ooo  opium  (imported),  and 
;^8,ooo,ooo  silk,  and  ;^5,ooo,ooo  tea  (exported).  The  last 
figures  are  inferior  to  what  they  formerly  were,  Indian  tea 
having  greatly  affected  Chinese  tea  as  far  as  England  is  con- 
cerned. Its  preparation  still  follows  the  old  system,  and  its 
lasting  quality  is  distinctly  inferior  to  Ceylon  and  other  teas 
grown  in  India.  This  is  another  example  of  the  vast  importance 
of  introducing  into  China  better  and  more  scientific  methods. 

The  export  trade  of  China  must  inevitably  remain  very 
limited  so  long  as  foreigners  are  prevented  from  penetrating 
into  the  country  and  directing  the  exploitation  of  its  resources. 
Whilst  it  was  a mere  matter  of  opening  a few  ports,  the 
Chinese  Government  made  no  very  serious  opposition  ; but 
only  the  realization  of  its  incapacity  to  resist  pressure  induced 
it  to  permit  the  introduction  into  the  Celestial  Empire  of 
foreign  capital,  machinery,  and  industrial  methods.  Well  may 
we  ask.  Can  the  Sick  Man  of  Peking  endure  such  violent  treat- 
ment ? Will  he  not  succumb  to  the  very  powerful  remedies 
that  are  being  administered  to  him,  and  thereby  fulfil  the  secret 
wishes  of  those  who  are  anxious  for  his  legacy  ? 

241  R 


CHAPTER  VIli 

CHINA  AND  THE  POWERS 

The  Question  of  the  Far  East  unexpectedly  brought  to  an  issue  by  the 
defeat  of  China — Foreign  misconception  of  Chinese  power,  and  the 
amazement  of  European  diplomacy  at  its  collapse — The  new  state 
of  affairs  created  by  Japanese  victories — The  aims  of  the  various 
Powers  in  the  Far  East  and  their  policy — England  seeks  an  ally  against 
Russia — Her  sudden  change  of  policy  in  1895 — She  abandons  China 
for  Japan — Russia  covets  the  whole  of  Northern  China — Japan’s  wish 
to  conquer  the  Celestial  Empire — The  treaty  of  Shimonosaki — Oppo- 
sition of  Russia  to  Japanese  policy — Russia  becomes  the  interested 
protectress  of  China — The  convention  between  the  three  Powers, 
France,  Germany,  and  Russia — Attempt  to  bring  about  a reconcilia- 
tion between  China  and  Japan — Substitution  of  a powerful  Russian 
influence  for  that  of  England. 

The  Chinese  Question  presents  many  difficulties,  not  only 
because  the  details  are  extremely  complicated  and  the  rival 
pretensions  which  it  has  created  difficult  to  reconcile,  but 
because  of  the  unexpected  manner  in  which  it  was  thrust  on 
the  attention  of  Europe,  at  a time  when  diplomacy  had  no 
ready  remedy. 

The  present  position  in  the  Far  East  is  not  the  result  of  a 
gradual  chain  of  events,  but  of  the  absolute  surprise  created  by 
the  unexpected  results  of  the  Chino-Japanese  War.  No  doubt 
the  collapse  of  China  in  1894  was  only  the  last  act  in  a long 
drama  of  decadence,  but  it  revealed  to  astonished  Europe 
the  utter  incapacity  of  China  either  to  reform  or  to  defend 
herself,  a fact  for  which  we  were  quite  unprepared.  Japan 
alone  knew  the  truth,  and  profited  by  her  knowledge  of  her 
colossal  neighbour’s  almost  incredible  weakness.  Russia  had 
suspected  it,  but  was  not  sufficiently  convinced  to  venture  on 
carrying  her  conviction  into  effect.  Thanks  to  the  astuteness 
of  the  Chinese  and  their  remarkable  aptitude  in  all  arts  of 

242 


CHINA 


deception,  and  the  effect  mentally  created  by  the  prodigious 
multitude  of  her  population — between  three  and  four  hundred 
million  souls — China  had  systematically  fooled  both  Govern- 
ments and  public  alike,  who  shared  the  same  illusion  as  to  her 
power.  Certain  events  had,  it  must  be  confessed,  conspired 
to  maintain  this  illusion,  notably  the  bold  resistance  which 
the  French  army  had  met  in  Tongking,  under,  no  doubt, 
peculiar  circumstances,  but,  nevertheless,  such  as  induced 
people  to  forget,  at  least  for  the  time,  the  facile  victories  of 
the  Allies  in  i860.  Certain  far-seeing  writers  — Mr.  Henry 
Norman  and  Mr.  Curzon,  the  latter  one  of  the  most  brilliant 
young  statesmen  of  the  United  Kingdom — had  indeed  realized 
that  under  a smooth  surface  there  existed  in  China  amazing 
weakness  and  corruption.  But  they  preached  in  the  desert. 
The  war  had  only  just  broken  out,  when  one  of  the  best-in- 
formed organs  of  the  English  press,  the  Spectator^  stated  : ‘ We 
think  the  weight  of  opinion  is  with  those  who  believe,  as  we 
do,  that,  if  necessary,  China  could  organize  a most  formidable 
army.’  This  was  the  illusion  universally  entertained  in  Europe, 
and,  strange  to  relate,  shared  by  the  majority  of  foreigners  living 
in  the  Far  East. 

By  dissipating  these  illusions  and  exhibiting  to  the  world  the 
truth  concerning  China’s  decrepitude,  the  Japanese  victories 
produced  almost  the  effect  of  an  earthquake.  European  diplo- 
macy had  foreseen  that  the  war  was  likely  to  give  rise  to  trouble, 
and  Lord  Rosebery  even  proposed  to  the  Powers  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  conflict  to  come  to  an  understanding  with  a view  of 
stopping  hostilities ; but  if  the  Queen’s  Prime  Minister  feared 
that  complications  in  Korea  might  lead  to  Russian  interven- 
tion, the  other  Powers  were  not  less  unfavourably  disposed  to 
see  a naval  demonstration  in  Chinese  waters  in  which  England 
should  take  the  lead.  It  was  therefore  resolved  that  European 
diplomacy  should  remain  inactive  and  watch  proceedings, 
everyone  believing  that  Japan  would  soon  be  expelled  from 
Korea,  and  that  both  the  Japanese  and  Chinese  fleets,  weakened 
in  one  or  two  naval  battles,  would  collapse  altogether  from 
sheer  lack  of  combatants.  When,  however,  the  Chinese  forces 
were  annihilated  in  the  autumn  of  1894,  Europe  was  taken 
aback  with  amazement,  so  great  was  her  surprise,  not  to  say 
consternation.  By  the  spring  of  1895  the  Powers  had  recovered 
from  the  shock  they  had  received,  but  their  policy  had  con- 
sequently to  be  changed  with  respect  to  a Power  which  they  had 

243  R 2 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 

believed  to  be  formidable,  but  whose  weakness  was  now  re- 
vealed. 

England,  with  perhaps  excessive  frankness,  turned  her  back 
on  her  old  ally  China.  At  the  beginning  of  the  conference 
she  had  been  the  champion  of  the  Celestial  Empire,  and 
the  newspapers  related  at  the  time  a curious  incident  which 
happened  before  Wei-hai-wei,  which  the  Japanese  squadron 
was  about  to  attack.  The  British  fleet  upset  their  plan  by 
saluting  Admiral  Ito,  contrary  to  all  precedents,  before  sun- 
rise, whereby  the  sleeping  Chinese  were  warned  of  their  danger. 
On  more  than  one  occasion  the  English  did  not  hesitate  to 
threaten  the  Japanese,  especially  after  the  latter  had  fired  on 
a British  merchant  ship  conveying  some  Chinese  troops.* 
There  was  no  mistaking  the  peremptory  tone  of  England 
when  she  gave  the  Japanese  to  understand  that  she  had  no 
desire  to  see  the  war  extend  to  Shanghai  and  the  region  of  the 
Yang-tsze. 

But  the  battle  of  the  Yalu  and  the  taking  of  Port  Arthur  in 
one  morning  by  the  troops  of  the  Mikado  opened  the  eyes  of 
the  Cabinet  of  St.  James’s.  What  Britain  desired  in  the  Far 
East  was,  on  the  one  hand,  a political  prop,  and  even  a military 
one,  if  necessary,  against  the  Empire  of  the  Tsar — ‘ a bolt  to 
fasten  the  door  against  the  ambitions  of  Russian  expansion,’ 
to  use  the  significant  expression  of  Herr  von  Brandt,  and,  on 
the  other,  a wide  opening  for  her  commerce  and  capital.  Once 
convinced  that  Japan,  firmly  established  in  Korea  and  on  the 
northern  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Pe-chi-li,  would  become  a far  more 
efficacious  ‘ bolt  ’ than  China,  England  began  to  favour  the 
Japanese,  and  at  the  same  time  to  advise  the  Chinese  Govern- 
ment to  abandon  Peking,  and  establish  itself  nearer  the  centre 
of  the  Empire.  If  the  Middle  Kingdom  was  no  longer  a useful 
ally,  it  might  still  become  a splendid  prey,  a field  of  extra- 
ordinary economic  activity,  so  that  the  transfer  of  the  capital  to 
some  point  on  the  banks  of  the  Yang-tsze  accessible  by  sea — to 
Nanking,  for  instance,  would  have  placed  China  at  the  mercy 
of  the  supreme  mistress  of  the  seas.  The  English,  moreover, 
fully  intended  to  force  China  to  open  her  ports,  and  their 
commercial  superiority  and  the  influence  which  they  have 

* The  story  of  the  improper  salute  was  a newspaper  fiction.  No 
foundation  for  it  has  ever  been  adduced.  The  ‘ threats  ’ after  the  sinking 
of  the  Kow-Shing  were  wholly  unofficial,  and  the  matter  was  referred  to 
arbitratioD  by  the  two  Governments. — H.  N. 

244 


CHINA 


already  established  over  the  peoples  in  the  Far  East  would 
soon  have  enabled  them  to  profit  largely  by  this  revolution. 

If,  however,  the  consequences  of  the  Chinese  defeat  were 
realized  in  London,  they  were  no  less  so  in  St.  Petersburg,  and 
subsequent  events  proved  that  Russian  diplomacy  was  equal  to 
the  occasion.  The  Government  of  the  Tsar  had  beheld  the 
war  with  quite  as  much  displeasure  as  England,  and  would 
have  preferred  the  Far  Eastern  Question  remaining  in  abeyance 
until  the  termination  of  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway.  The  object 
pursued  by  Russia  in  tne  Far  East  is,  it  should  be  remembered, 
absolutely  opposed  to  that  of  England,  and  concentrates  itself 
on  the  one  issue — the  securing  of  open  sea.  The  vast  Empire 
of  the  Tsars  possesses  no  port  in  Europe,  where  the  ‘keys  of 
the  house  ’ are  in  the  hands,  so  to  speak,  of  other  Powers,  and 
England  barred  her  way  to  the  south  fifteen  or  twenty  years  ago 
in  Afghanistan  and  Beluchistan.  In  the  Far  East  somewhere 
in  the  middle  of  the  century  Russia  contrived  to  descend  from 
the  Polar  Sea  of  Okhotsk  and  to  advance  at  the  expense  of 
China  as  far  as  Vladivostok ; but  this  port  remains  closed  for  two 
months  on  account  of  the  ice,  and  Russia  has  always  considered 
her  provinces  of  the  Amur  and  of  the  Littoral  merely  in  the  light 
of  temporary  stations,  whence  she  intended  on  some  future  and 
favourable  occasion  to  push  her  way  further  south.  Between 
1880  and  1886  it  was  reported  that  she  was  about  to  obtain 
a concession  somewhere  in  the  Bay  of  Korea,  or  even  in  the 
isle  of  Quelpart,  which  is  in  the  strait  separating  that  country 
from  Japan.  A little  later  she  seemed  to  covet  Port  Arthur 
or  Talien-wan,  which  are  free  of  ice,  and  are  situated  at  the 
extremity  of  the  peninsula  of  Liao-tung,  which  would  provide 
her  access  to  an  open  sea  at  the  back  of  Korea  and  other 
advantages.  At  the  narrow  entrance  to  the  Gulf  of  Pe-chi-li 
and  only  50  miles  from  the  opposite  coast  of  Shan-tung,  are 
ports  which  offer  great  advantages  as  naval  stations,  whence  a 
rapid  transport  fleet  could  easily  convey  troops  in  twenty-four 
hours  to  Taku,  and  thence  in  four  days’  march  to  the  Chinese 
capital.  Once  established  at  Port  Arthur,  and  having  plenty 
of  elbow-room  in  Pe-chi-li,  Russia  could  exercise  over  the 
Chinese  Government,  in  its  present  capital,  even  a more  irre- 
sistible pressure  than  could  England  have  done  had  she  been 
able  to  induce  the  Imperial  Court  to  transport  itself  to  the  banks 
of  the  Yang-tsze. 

Unquestionably  the  dreams  of  Russian  aggrandizement  have 

245 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


become  much  more  ambitious  since  she  has  discovered  how  very 
weak  the  Sick  Man  of  Peking  is.  She  no  longer  seeks  an  open 
port  on  the  Pacific,  but  apparently  pursues  her  object,  un- 
ostentatiously however,  towards  the  complete  domination  of 
the  Middle  Kingdom,  especially  over  her  vast  dependencies 
in  Turkestan,  Mongolia,  and  Manchuria — in  a word,  over  the 
whole  of  North  China,  And  as  the  Muscovite  temperament  is 
ever  a dreamy  one,  who  knows  but  that  on  the  shores  of  the  Neva 
the  heir  of  Peter  the  Great  does  not  already  picture  himself 
on  the  throne  of  the  Sun  of  Heaven,  commanding  the  latter’s 
multitude  of  subjects,  who  are  accustomed  to  submit  to  a 
foreign  yoke,  and  might  obey  the  Tsar  as  unresistingly  as  they 
did  Ghengis  Khan,  even  as  to-day  they  pay  homage  to  a de- 
generate Manchu,  and  as  indeed  they  would  have  done  to  the 
Mikado,  had  not  Europe  put  a stop  to  further  advances  on  the 
part  of  the  Japanese?  The  Mikado,  too,  who  had  been  driven 
into  the  war  by  the  repeated  insolence  of  the  Chinese  and  also 
by  the  justifiable  desire  to  protect  his  commercial  interests  in 
Korea,  may  also,  when  intoxicated  by  his  surprising  successes, 
have  entertained  the  thought  that  it  might  be  possible  for  him 
one  day  to  annex  China.  If  this  war  had  taken  place  fifty,  or 
even  twenty-five,  years  ago,  when  Europe  paid  less  attention  to 
foreign  affairs,  it  is  probable  that  the  Manchu  Dynasty  would 
have  been  replaced  by  that  of  Japan.  Possibly  then  the 
‘Yellow  Peril’ — the  military  ‘ Yellow  Peril’ — which  to-day  is 
but  a mere  chimera,  might  have  become  a very  evident  reality. 
The  Japanese,  after  having  thoroughly  reorganized  and  disci- 
plined the  Chinese  army,  might  at  a given  moment  have  let 
loose  its  innumerable  hordes  upon  the  Western  world ; but 
if  in  1895  they  had  allowed  themselves  for  a moment  to  dream 
of  placing  their  Emperor  upon  the  throne  of  Peking,  the 
Japanese  were  not  allowed  to  indulge  in  this  pleasant  vision 
for  long,  and  were  soon  made  to  feel  how  intently  and  jealously 
their  movements  were  watched  by  European  diplomacy. 

By  the  treaty  of  Shimonosaki,  signed  April  2,  1895,  the 
Celestial  Empire  granted  to  her  conquerors  all  their  demands, 
recognising  at  the  same  time  the  independence  of  Korea,  and 
allowing  Japan,  whose  troops  still  occupied  that  country,  a free 
hand.  If  this  treaty  had  been  ratified  as  it  was  originally 
drawn  up,  Russia  would  have  had  to  renounce  for  a long  time 
to  come  all  hope  of  possessing  an  outlet  to  the  open  sea,  and 
would  certainly  have  had  to  see  her  influence  substituted  by 

246 


CHINA 


a rival  at  Peking,  who  would  have  reorganized  China  possibly 
in  a hostile  spirit.  She  could  not  allow  this,  but  she  dared 
take  no  initiative  by  herself,  fearing  lest  she  might  sud- 
denly find  herself  confronted  by  England  and  Japan.  She, 
therefore,  before  the  signature  of  the  treaty  of  peace,  placed 
herself  in  communication  with  France  and  Germany,  and 
endeavoured  to  make  those  Powers  understand  that  the  installa- 
tion of  Japan  on  the  coast  was  as  detrimental  to  their  interests 
as  it  was  to  her  own.  She  successfully  converted  them  to  her 
way  of  thinking,  and  on  April  22  the  three  Powers  addressed 
a Note  to  the  Mikado,  couched  in  the  most  courteous  terms, 
begging  of  his  Majesty  to  renounce  his  pretensions  over  the 
peninsula  of  Liao-tung,  the  establishment  of  his  authority  in 
that  country  being  likely  to  create  a permanent  danger  to  the 
peace,  not  only  of  the  Far  East,  but  of  the  whole  world.  At 
first  the  Mikado,  so  it  seems,  was  determined  to  resist  at  any 
cost,  and  to  refuse  to  yield.  His  Government  cast  an  eye 
towards  England,  to  see  if  her  support  could  be  counted 
upon ; but  at  that  time  the  Cabinet  of  St.  James’s  had  not 
made  up  its  mind  whether  it  would  openly  espouse  the  cause 
of  Japan  or  not.  Possibly  it  was  influenced  by  the  absolutely 
anti-Japanese  feelings  entertained  by  the  vast  majority  of  English 
subjects  living  in  the  Far  East,  and  it  is  also  by  no  means  im- 
probable that  she  did  not  wish  to  assist  a Power  that  might 
eventually  become  a dangerous  rival  to  her  own  commercial 
supremacy.  Perceiving  at  last  that  England  would  neither  join 
the  three  great  Powers  nor  back  the  Mikado  in  his  pretensions, 
the  Government  of  Tokio  very  wisely  consented,  at  the  time 
bearing  great  ill-feeling  towards  England,  who  now  found  herself 
isolated  in  the  Far  East.  Nevertheless,  resentment  against 
Russia  was  so  powerful,  and  the  feeling  of  alarm  entertained  by 
the  two  insular  Powers  at  the  spectacle  of  the  progress  made 
by  Russia  so  great,  that  in  a short  time  a reconciliation  was 
effected  between  them. 

The  intervention  of  what  is  known  in  the  Far  East  as  the 
New  Triple  Alliance  resulted  in  consequences  quite  as  grave 
and  durable  as  the  war  itself.  Its  immediate  effects  dominated 
the  politics  of  the  Far  East  until  the  end  of  1897,  and  even 
now  continue  to  do  so.  The  essential  features  of  the  new  situa- 
tion were  the  substitution  in  China  of  Russian  influence,  now 
become  all-powerful,  for  that  of  England,  the  antagonism  which 
has  risen  between  Russia  and  Japan,  and  the  friendly  feeling 

247 


THE  AWAKENING  Oi*-  THE  EAST 


which  now  exists  between  this  last  Power  and  England.  The 
mandarins  and  the  Court  of  Peking,  whilst  never  ceding  an 
iota  of  their  pride  or  their  firm  belief  in  the  superiority  of  their 
civilization,  were,  nevertheless,  obliged  to  admit  the  irremedi- 
able weakness  of  the  military  power  of  the  Celestial  Empire.  If 
the  majority  did  not  care  much  for  China  as  their  country,  they 
one  and  all  considered  her  to  be  their  prey,  and  consequently 
required  a protector  against  the  Japanese,  and  they  proceeded 
from  Legation  to  Legation  in  quest  of  one  ; as  their  situation 
was  desperate,  they  were  obliged  to  take  what  they  could  get, 
and,  Russia  being  agreeable,  they  accepted  her  friendly  offer, 
even  though  their  new  ally  might  eventually  become  a domineer- 
ing master.  This  gave  them  time,  and  they  counted  upon  their 
cunning,  when  a favourable  opportunity  presented  itself,  to  set 
the  Powers  by  the  ears.  Probably  at  heart  they  entertain  less 
dislike  for  the  Muscovite  Empire  than  for  any  other  European 
country,  and,  indeed,  China  has  less  friction  with  the  Russians 
than  with  any  other  nationality.  Russia  can  enter  the  Celestial 
Empire  over  her  land  frontier  through  countries  very  thinly 
populated  by  inhabitants  not  of  Chinese  race,  who  are  not 
hostile  to  strangers ; whereas  the  other  Europeans  coming  by 
sea  are  brought  into  immediate  contact  with  the  turbulent 
crowds  of  the  seaport  towns,  where  the  least  act  of  imprudence 
may  give  rise  to  grave  incidents.  Moreover,  the  subjects  of 
the  Tsar  exhibit  a greater  degree  of  forbearance  than  the 
peoples  of  the  West.  They  do  not  experience  that  innate 
contempt  for  men  of  colour,  they  are  more  tractable  to  the 
habits  of  the  countries  in  which  they  establish  themselves,  and 
are  not  so  forward  in  protesting  against  petty  annoyances.  The 
Orthodox  Church,  too,  scrupulously  abstains  from  all  propa- 
ganda in  China,  and  the  Russian  Legation  is  therefore  spared 
those  delicate  questions  concerning  the  rights  and  the  wTongs 
of  missionaries  which  so  greatly  irritate  the  Chinese.  All  this 
facilitates  the  substitution  of  Russian  influence  for  that  of  the 
English. 

We  must,  however,  seek  for  the  causes  which  induced  France 
and  Germany  to  enter,  under  the  Russian  auspices,  into  an  un- 
expected alliance  outside  the  question  of  the  Far  East.  The 
harmony  that  exists  between  these  two  Powers  is  due  to  their 
desire  to  gain  the  good  graces  of  the  Tsar.  Rivals  in  en- 
deavouring to  please  him,  they  both  answered  all  proposals 
which  came  from  St.  Petersburg  favourably.  Germany  had  no 

248 


CHINA 


political  interests  in  the  East  of  Asia,  and  France  only  those 
of  secondary  importance  connected  with  Indo-China,  and  there- 
fore these  nations  never  hesitated  to  regulate  their  line  of 
conduct  in  the  Far  East  in  accordance  with  their  political 
aspirations  in  Europe,  and,  the  better  to  please  Russia,  forthwith 
modified  their  previously  somewhat  hostile  attitude.  During 
the  war  both  Powers  had  been  more  or  less  favourable  to 
Japan. 

This  change  of  conduct  involved  a considerable  sacrifice, 
especially  in  the  case  of  France,  and  signified  the  rupture  of 
her  old  friendship  for  Japan,  whose  army  had  been  formed  by 
a French  military  mission,  and  whose  battleships  and  arsenals 
had  been  in  great  part  constructed  and  organized  by  French- 
men, services  which  the  Japanese  recognised  shortly  after  the 
victory  of  the  Yalu  by  sending  to  the  eminent  naval  engineer, 
M.  Bertin,  the  grand  cordon  of  the  Order  of  the  Rising  Sun. 
France  had  not  obtained  great  advantages  from  this  friendship, 
but  if  she  did  not  do  so,  it  was  more  or  less  because  she  did  not 
wish  it,  for  it  is  certain  that  the  alliance  of  the  Mikado  was 
offered  to  her  in  1884  on  the  condition  that  she  conveyed  to  the 
coasts  of  Pe-chi-li  a Japanese  army  corps,  intended  to  march 
on  to  Peking.  France  had  also  the  right  to  expect  after  the  war 
some  commercial  advantages,  notably  some  important  com- 
mercial orders  to  her  great  industrial  firms,  for  the  renovating 
of  the  fleet,  much  damaged  by  the  war.  By  placing  herself  on 
the  side  of  China,  whose  friendship  might  have  been  useful, 
the  more  so  as  she  was  a neighbour,  although  she  was  con- 
stantly wrangling  with  her,  France  gave  up  an  alliance  with 
the  one  country  in  the  Far  East  which  represents  progress  and 
has  a future,  and,  what  is  more,  she  literally  pushed  her  into 
the  arms  of  England,  who  may  one  day  make  use  of  her 
against  the  French. 

The  sacrifices  made  by  Germany  were  less  important,  for  she 
could  not  expect  in  the  Far  East  any  considerable  advantages. 
To  begin  with,  she  had  seized  the  opportunity  to  play  a political 
part  on  a stage  where  she  had  never  appeared  before,  but 
being  much  more  commercial  than  France,  she  had  more  to 
gain  from  the  concessions  which  China  would  be  obliged  to 
make,  and  she  could  thus  include  this  vast  market  in  the 
sphere  of  her  industrial  activity  and  commercial  enterprise. 
By  mixing  in  the  affairs  of  the  Far  East  the  youthful  German 
Empire  only  obeyed  the  instinct  of  foreign  expansion  which 

249 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


obliges  her  to  watch  over  her  political  and  commercial  interests 
in  all  parts  of  the  world. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  action  of  the  three  Continental 
Powers  presented  considerable  danger,  aggravated  as  it  was  by 
the  warlike  intentions  of  the  commanders  of  the  Russian  fleet 
A rumour  certainly  existed  in  1896  in  the  Far  East,  and,  more- 
over, has  since  been  confirmed  to  me  by  most  credible  witnesses, 
that  between  April  25,  the  day  on  which  the  Note  of  the  three 
Powers  was  presented,  and  May  5th,  the  date  on  which  the 
representatives  of  Japan  announced  their  acquiescence.  Admiral 
Tyrtof,  who  commanded  the  Russian  fleet  and  who  has  since 
become  Minister  of  Marine,  invited  Admiral  de  la  Bonnini^re 
de  Beaumont  to  proceed  with  him  to  meet  the  Japanese  fleet 
at  the  risk  of  provoking  a collision,  in  which  the  latter  would 
inevitably  have  been  crushed.  The  presence  of  mind  of  the 
French  Admiral,  who  evaded  the  invitation  by  protesting  that 
he  had  received  no  instructions  from  his  Government,  and 
therefore  delayed  matters  as  long  as  possible,  prevented  an 
aggression  which  might  have  resulted  in  dreadful  consequences, 
and  led  to  a massacre  in  Japan  itself  of  Russian  and  French 
residents,  and,  moreover,  might  have  brought  about  extremely 
grave  international  complications.  Who  knows,  too,  but  that 
public  opinion  in  England  might  have  been  offended  by  such 
an  act,  and  that  on  the  morrow  of  an  easy  victory  over  the 
Japanese  the  Allies  might  have  found  themselves  face  to  face 
with  the  British  fleet  ? 

It  is  certain  that  by  taking  sides  with  Russia  in  a question  of 
only  secondary  interest  to  herself  France  incurred  the  grave 
risk  of  a war  not  only  with  Japan,  but  with  England,  a war 
in  which  her  stake  was  far  greater  than  that  of  Russia  or  of 
Germany,  and  the  consequences  of  which  she  would  have  been 
obliged  to  bear  alone.  Fortunately,  the  prudence  of  Admiral 
de  Beaumont  smoothed  over  the  angry  feeling  of  the  Russian 
commanders,  which,  however,  manifested  itself  once  more  on 
May  8,  1895,  date  on  which  the  ratifications  of  the  treaty 
of  peace  between  China  and  Japan  were  to  have  been  ex- 
changed. On  that  day  the  Russian  fleet  was  stationed  in  the 
roads  off  the  Chinese  port  of  Chefoo,  at  the  entrance  to  the 
Gulf  of  Pe-chi-li,  opposite  Port  Arthur,  where  the  exchange  of 
ratifications  was  to  have  occurred,  ready  for  fight  in  case  Japan 
refused  her  acceptance,  in  which  case  it  was  agreed  between 
the  admirals  to  oppose  the  Japanese  near  Ta-ku,  at  the  mouth 

250 


CHINA 


of  the  Pei-ho,  close  to  Wei-hai-Wei,  where  their  fleet  was 
anchored.  Alongside  of  the  Russian  fleet  were  two  German 
cruisers,  representing  the  German  navy  in  the  Far  East ; but 
Admiral  de  Beaumont  steamed  away,  leaving  only  at  Wei-hai- 
Wei  the  Forjait,  thereby  showing  very  clearly  that  he  had  no 
intention  of  taking  part  in  a superfluous  demonstration,  which 
would  only  have  resulted  in  increasing  the  irritation  of  Japan 
against  the  three  Powers. 

These  warlike  demonstrations  presented  a singular  contrast 
to  the  extremely  courteous  tone  of  the  Notes  presented  to  Japan 
by  the  Russian,  French,  and  German  ministers.  They  had  the 
effect  of  convincing  Japan  that  she  had  in  the  future  to  count 
with  the  lasting  hostility  of  the  Tsar,  and  that  the  secret  desire 
of  the  Government  of  St.  Petersburg  was  not  only  to  prevent 
her  establishing  herself  on  the  Asiatic  Continent,  but  also 
eventually  to  completely  annihilate  her.  By  a curious  right- 
about-face, Japan  now  turned  towards  China,  who  received  her 
overtures  favourably.  The  fact  was  that  at  Peking  the  pre- 
tensions of  Russia  had  created  great  alarm,  and  Li  Hung-chang 
opened  his  heart  to  the  Japanese  Consul  at  Tient-sin,  and 
begged  the  Cabinet  of  Tokio  to  give  a conciliatory  answer  with 
respect  to  the  question  of  Liao-tung,  and  solve  it  in  a friendly 
manner,  and  thereby  avoid  increasing  the  responsibilities  which 
weighed  upon  his  shoulders.  The  Chinese  Government,  he 
added,  was  entirely  at  the  mercy  of  the  Russians,  and  could  only 
be  saved  by  Japan. 

Was  this  intended  on  the  part  of  the  old  diplomatist  as  a dis- 
guised offer  of  service  ? It  is  impossible  to  say.  One  thing 
only  is  certain — the  Tsung-li-Yamen  proposed  that  the  Japanese 
minister,  M.  Hayashi,  should  negotiate  directly,  and  offer  as  a 
compensation  for  Liao-tung  not  an  indemnity,  but  an  alliance 
with  China  and  a concession  for  the  railway  to  be  built  between 
Tien-tsin  and  Peking.  The  Government  of  the  Mikado  was 
inclined  to  accept  this  solution,  but  the  three  Continental 
Powers — that  is  to  say,  Russia — did  not  view  the  matter  favour- 
ably. They  wished,  for  better  security — that  Japan  should  not 
be  bound  to  China  only,  but  that  the  retrocession  of  Liao-tung 
should  not  be  subjected  to  clauses  calculated  to  prolong 
matters,  and,  above  all,  a cessation  of  the  continuance  of  the 
Japanese  occupation  of  Korea.  They  therefore  insisted  that 
the  matter  should  be  settled  at  once  by  the  payment  of  a sup- 
plementary indemnity  of  30,000,000  taels,  or  ^^4,500,000, 

251 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


payable  on  November  i8th,  1895,  the  Japanese  evacuation  to 
take  place  within  three  months. 

Japan  was  obliged  to  accept  these  propositions  by  an 
exchange  of  Notes  signed  on  the  19th  October,  and  she,  more- 
over, agreed  to  withdraw  her  troops  from  Korea  immediately. 
The  attempt  at  a reconciliation  and  an  alliance  with  the 
Celestial  Empire  had  failed;  but  since  then  the  language  of 
the  Japanese  press  and  of  many  of  her  statesmen  proves  that 
at  Tokio  this  idea  has  not  been  entirely  abandoned,  and  if 
they  have  not  been  able  to  confiscate  China  to  the  advantage 
of  the  Mikado,  the  Japanese  wish  to  see  her  placed  in  a position 
to  resist  the  pressure  of  other  Powers  and  to  exist  by  her  own 
resources.  On  the  payment  of  the  indemnity,  Japan  endeavoured 
to  obtain  from  China  a formal  promise  that  she  would  never 
cede  to  any  other  Power  the  territories  which  she  had  been 
obliged  to  restore.  But  Russian  influence  was  already  too 
firmly  established,  and  the  promise  was  refused.  The  new 
political  line  of  conduct  which  the  European  Powers  and 
those  which  had  at  first  come  to  her  assistance  were  about  to 
follow  with  respect  to  China  was  now  openly  developed.  If 
the  Setting  Sun  had  more  worshippers  now  than  the  Rising 
Sun,  it  is  assuredly  not  the  result  of  any  sentiment  of 
chivalrous  disinterestedness — quite  the  contrary. 


25a 


CHAPTER  IX 

RUSSIA,  FRANCE,  AND  ENGLAND  IN  THE  FAR  EAST  IN  1 895-9 7 

The  immediate  results  of  the  war — Issue  of  an  important  Chinese  loan — 
Russia  becomes  guarantee  for  China,  and  in  return  obtains  the  right 
to  construct  the  Manchurian  Railway — Ability  of  Russian  diplomacy 
in  Korea — Faults  and  abuses  of  the  Japanese  in  that  country — Revolu- 
tion in  the  Korean  palace  at  Seoul — The  King  of  Korea  under  the 
protection  of  Russia — Preponderance  of  Muscovite  influences  in  the 
Far  East  at  the  beginning  of  1897 — Important  advantages  obtained  by 
the  Tsar’s  allies — Apparent  disinterestedness  of  Germany — Treaty 
with  France  signed  on  June  20th,  1895 — Energy  of  the  French 
Minister — French  protectorate  over  the  Catholics  of  the  East — Efforts 
made  by  England  in  1896  to  regain  her  influence  at  Peking — Anglo- 
Chinese  Convention,  February  4th,  1897 — Opening  of  the  West  River 
to  European  navigation — A few  fresh  concessions  granted  to  France  in 
1897- 

In  the  events  which  have  transpired  in  the  Far  East  since  the 
War,  and  which  have  led  to  the  present  situation,  two  distinct 
phases  mark  the  violent  aggression  of  Kiao-chau.  The  first 
extends  from  the  spring  of  1895  to  the  autumn  of  1897,  and  is 
that  in  which  the  Powers,  after  having  come  to  China’s 
assistance,  obtained  from  her  concessions  in  return  for  their 
good  offices,  whilst  pretending  moderation  in  their  demands. 

Altogether,  the  most  important  consequence  of  the  War  was 
the  establishment  of  a heavy  foreign  debt.  Hitherto  China 
had  only  contracted  in  Europe  insignificant  loans  of  a few 
millions  of  francs.  During  hostilities  her  foreign  indebtedness 
rose  to  ^7,000,000,  a mere  trifle,  and,  moreover,  the  lenders 
were  in  possession  of  excellent  security ; but  the  War 
Indemnity  and  other  urgent  expenses  necessary  for  the  re- 
habilitation of  the  country  mounted  up  to  ^^48,000,000,  so 
that  now  the  interest  on  this  debt,  taking  the  rate  at  5 per 
cent,  would  absorb  ^^2, 400,000,  and,  by  adding  the  arrears 

253 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


of  already  existing  loans,  this  figure  would  attain  about 
;^2, 800,000,  equivalent  to  nearly  the  whole  of  the  Customs 
revenue.  The  Customs  duties  are  paid  in  silver,  but  it  would 
be  absolutely  necessary  to  stipulate,  if  a considerable  loan  is  to 
be  floated  on  the  European  market,  that  the  interest  should  be 
paid  in  gold.  The  question,  therefore,  very  naturally  arises 
whether,  in  view  of  so  small  a margin,  the  fluctuations  in  the 
value  of  silver,  which  have  already  caused  the  hai-kivan  tael  to 
fall  from  6s.  7d.,  its  value  a quarter  of  a century  ago,  to  2s.  rod., 
the  average  rate  since  1897,  will  not  sooner  or  later  result  in 
the  Customs  receipts  proving  insufficient  to  cover  the  payment 
of  the  arrears.  Nobody  in  his  senses  would  dream  of  lending 
money  to  China  on  the  mere  security  of  her  general  resources, 
and  she  would,  consequently,  be  obliged  to  assign  to  her 
creditors  new  securities,  and  place  in  their  hands  the  adminis- 
tration of  new  branches  of  revenue.  On  the  other  hand, 
stripped  of  about  ^2,800,000  from  the  total  revenue,  which 
the  most  optimistic  estimate  gives  at  ;^24,ooo,ooo,  she  would 
have  to  look  for  new  channels  to  add  to  her  income,  either 
by  increasing  the  taxes,  or  by  permitting  foreigners  to  exploit 
the  resources  of  the  country,  conceding  to  them  railway  and 
mining  concessions  on  the  basis  of  leases  or  joint  profits. 
The  first  proposal  ran  the  risk  of  unpopularity ; the  second 
was  more  tempting,  but  it  meant  the  introduction  into  the 
country  of  that  very  Western  civilization  which  the  Chinese 
Government  had  opposed  with  all  its  might  for  the  last  fifty 
years. 

The  monetary  difficulties  of  the  Celestial  Empire  brought 
about  a renewed  interference  by  Europeans  in  her  affairs,  if 
only  in  the  collecting  of  the  taxes,  and,  also,  a sort  of  financial 
embargo,  the  dangers  of  which  are  sufficiently  manifest  in 
countries  like  Egypt.  The  Government  of  Peking  was  well 
aware  of  this,  and,  therefore,  spared  no  effort  in  obtaining  a 
reduction  on  the  ^34,500,000  War  Indemnity,  and  even  at- 
tempted to  arrive  at  an  understanding  with  Japan  respecting  the 
retrocession  of  Liao-tung  without  supplementary  disbursement. 

The  great  importance  of  this  money  question  was  nowhere 
better  understood  than  at  St.  Petersburg,  and  one  cannot  help 
admiring  the  boldness  and  ability  of  the  policy  pursued  by 
Russia.  That  countries  like  France  and  England,  literally 
overflowing  with  money,  should  have  ventured  to  secure  a 
preponderating  position  in  China  by  means  of  financial 

254 


CHINA 


manoeuvrings  is  not  at  all  to  be  wondered  at ; but  that  Russia, 
already  heavily  indebted  with  a public  foreign  debt  amount- 
ing to  over  ;^24o, 000,000,  should  have  been  shrewd  enough 
to  subject  China  to  a sort  of  vassalage,  through  the  pecuniary 
services  she  rendered  her,  was  indeed  a masterly  achievement. 

M.  de  Witte,  the  Tsar’s  Minister  of  Finance,  who  devised 
this  remarkable  scheme  and  conducted  it  to  a triumphant 
issue  over  the  head  of  the  Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs, 
exhibited  throughout  the  rarest  political  ability  and  foresight 
combined  with  business  acumen.  Russia  was  unable  to  lend 
China  money,  but  she  was  willing  to  become  her  guarantor, 
and  thus  enable  the  Celestial  Empire,  backed  by  the 
principal  banks  of  Paris,  where  Russian  funds  were  at  their 
height,  to  float  a loan  of  16,000,000  at  4 per  cent,  issued 
at  ninety-four — that  is  to  say,  at  the  same  issue  price  at  which, 
before  this  security  was  granted,  the  French  and  German 
financial  houses  had  offered  to  raise  a loan  at  5 per  cent. 
The  annual  interest  to  be  paid  by  China,  thanks  to  Russian 
intervention,  was  thus  reduced  by  a fifth,  whereby  the  Celestials, 
although  they  obtained  a bargain,  at  the  same  time  committed 
a grave  political  error. 

In  accepting  a foreign  Power  as  guarantor,  the  Chinese 
Government  rendered  itself  responsible  to  that  Power  only, 
and  placed  her  financial  and,  above  all,  her  political  inde- 
pendence in  far  greater  peril  than  she  could  have  done  had 
she  negotiated  directly  with  individual  capitalists  of  various 
nationalities,  whose  pressure,  in  case  of  non-payment,  would 
have  been  considerably  weakened  by  the  inevitable  differences 
which  would  subsist  between  their  Governments.  This  danger 
seems  to  have  been  thoroughly  understood  at  Peking,  where 
the  necessary  documents  were  not  signed  until  the  expiration 
of  the  last  day’s  delay  granted  by  Russia,  and  then  only  under 
extreme  pressure,  because  the  Chinese  Government  had 
evidently  failed  to  find  assistance  elsewhere. 

The  Government  of  St.  Petersburg,  well  pleased  with  this 
success,  proceeded  to  strengthen  its  policy  in  China  by  further 
financial  operations,  and  with  the  assistance  of  the  Bank  of 
Russia  next  created  the  Russo-Chinese  Bank,  Parisian  financiers 
supplying  the  greater  part  of  the  capital,  but  leaving  the  direc- 
tion of  affairs  almost  exclusively  in  Russian  hands.  The 
Comptoir  d’Escompte  transferred  its  agencies  in  China  to 
Russia,  and  the  new  bank  established  at  the  same  time  branches 

255 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


at  Peking,  Tien-tsin,  Shanghai,  and  Hankow.  Since  then  this 
bank  has  continued  to  be  the  principal  agent  of  Russian  influ- 
ence in  China,  and  undoubtedly  it  was  at  first  almost  entirely 
through  its  mediation  that  Russia  negotiated  the  concession  of 
the  East  Chinese  Railway,  which  enabled  her  to  continue  her 
Trans-Siberian  Railway  southward  through  Manchuria,  thus 
shortening  the  original  line  by  several  hundred  miles,  and 
enabling  it  to  pass  within  350  miles  of  the  Gulf  of  Pe-chi-lL 
Russia,  moreover,  obtained  the  authorization  to  protect  the 
works  by  her  own  troops,  whereby  she  made  herself  mistress  of 
Manchuria,  whence  she  was  able  to  dominate  Peking  until 
events  allowed  her  to  occupy  Liao-tung. 

Whilst  she  was  amply  paid  for  her  services  by  China,  Russia 
made  herself  no  less  active  in  Korea.  The  Japanese,  who  had 
occupied  that  country,  perpetrated  error  on  error.  They  had 
attempted  to  impose  upon  the  Koreans  with  great  abruptness 
the  most  varied  and  radical  reforms.  Many  of  these  were 
possibly  useful  enough,  but  they  ought  to  have  been  introduced 
with  discretion  ; others  were  unnecessary,  and  greatly  irritated 
the  people  by  wounding  their  most  cherished  customs  and 
traditions.  The  Koreans,  although  not  particularly  clean  in 
their  habits,  are  invariably  clad  in  white,  are,  moreover,  addicted 
to  smoking  very  long  pipes,  and  to  rolling  their  hair  up  into  a 
huge  chignon,  which  they  surmount  by  an  enormously  broad- 
brimmed  hat,  whose  crown  is  so  small  that  they  are  obliged  to 
fasten  it  to  their  heads  by  a long  string.  The  Mikado  issued  a 
sumptuary  law  against  long  pipes,  chignons,  and  wide-brimmed 
hats,  and,  moreover,  ordered  that  the  traditional  white  robe 
should  henceforth  be  replaced  by  the  dark-blue  one  usually 
worn  by  the  Japanese.  It  is  said  that  this  unfortunate  incident 
was  the  result  of  a conviction  that  Koreans,  being  obliged  to 
hold  their  pipe  with  one  hand,  and  to  balance  their  enormous 
hats  with  the  other,  could  never  become  hard  workers.  Be 
this  as  it  may,  the  Japanese  sentinels  at  the  gates  of  Seoul 
made  life  unendurable  to  the  unfortunate  Koreans.  Armed 
with  a big  pair  of  scissors,  they  pounced  upon  the  unfortunate 
peasants  as  they  entered  the  towm  on  their  way  to  market,  and 
cut  not  only  the  strings  of  their  monumental  hats,  but  severed 
their  beloved  chignons,  and  shortened  by  at  least  three-quarters 
of  their  length  the  stems  of  their  pipes — arbitrary  measures 
well  calculated  to  break  their  hearts  with  mortification  and 
vexation  of  spirit  It  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  such 

256 


CHINA 


impolitic  conduct,  added  to  occasional  acts  of  violence,  soon 
roused  the  indignation  and  hatred  of  the  natives,  otherwise  a 
very  inoffensive  and  peaceable  people.  On  October  7,  1895, 
the  Korean  Queen  was  murdered  in  her  palace  by  assassins 
in  the  pay  of  the  Japanese,  and  with  the  complicity  of  the 
Legation.  King  Li-Hsi,  a very  poor  creature  at  the  best, 
whose  reign  has  been  one  tissue  of  Court  intrigue  and  palace 
revolution,  after  the  assassination  of  the  Queen,  fell  into  a con- 
sternation of  abject  terror,  completely  abdicating  his  regal 
authority,  and  became  so  degraded  that  he  even  consented  to 
sign  an  edict  insulting  the  memory  of  the  late  Queen,  and 
accusing  her  of  shameful  crimes.  Innocent  persons  were  now 
executed  at  Seoul  as  guilty  of  the  murder,  whereas  the  actual 
assassins  were  acquitted  by  a self-constituted  Japanese  tribunal. 

In  the  meantime  Russia  very  ably  exploited  the  general 
discontent,  and  in  an  underhand  manner  offered  her  services 
to  the  timid  King,  who  was  not  only  terribly  afraid  of  the 
Japanese,  but  also  of  his  father,  the  Tai-wen-kun,  a ferocious 
old  gentleman,  whose  ambition  had  disturbed  Korea  for  over 
twenty  years,  and  who  had  been  raised  to  power  by  the  natives. 
His  Majesty  seemed  disposed  to  accept  the  Russian  proposal, 
but  dared  not  leave  his  palace,  in  which  he  was  kept  a close 
prisoner.  A riot  ensued,  whether  spontaneous  or  provoked 
has  never  been  divulged,  which,  on  the  night  of  February  ii, 
1896,  offered  him  a chance  of  escape.  The  Tai-wen-kun  was 
killed,  and  Li-Hsi  obtained  shelter  at  the  Russian  Legation, 
then  guarded  by  a detachment  of  sailors  fresh  landed  at 
Chemulpo,  the  port  of  Seoul,  without  any  attempt  on  the  part 
of  the  Japanese  to  prevent  them.  Li-Hsi,  once  safe  in  the  house 
of  the  Russian  Minister,  where  all  the  members  of  the  Korean 
Government  had  found  shelter,  acted  like  a King  in  a comic 
opera,  and  became  the  plaything  of  Russia,  precisely  as  he  had 
recently  been  of  Japan.  He  forthwith  revoked  all  the  reform- 
ing edicts  he  had  previously  signed,  and  annulled  the  decree 
degrading  the  memory  of  the  unfortunate  Queen,  the  trial 
of  whose  assassins  took  place  in  a High  Court  presided  over 
by  judges  selected  from  various  European  nationalities,  with 
the  result  that  the  responsibility  for  her  murder  was  thrown  on 
the  Japanese. 

The  reactionary  movement  now  became  violent,  and  many 
useful  reforms  had  perforce  to  disappear.  A committee,  com- 
posed of  the  highest  native  functionaries,  the  British  Controller 

257  s 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


of  Customs,  and  a few  Americans,  was  appointed  to  study 
measures  of  reform,  but  they  only  met  two  or  three  times,  and 
nothing  came  of  it,  so  that  in  a few  months  all  the  old  abuses 
reappeared.  Nevertheless,  by  her  sagacious  conduct,  Russia 
had  the  ability  to  win  over  the  foreign  representatives  in  Korea 
to  her  side,  and  Japan,  in  order  to  preserve  the  remnant  of  her 
influence  in  a country  whose  commerce  was  mainly  in  her 
hands,  and  w’here  not  less  than  ip,ooo  of  her  subjects  resided, 
was  now  obliged  to  arrive  at  an  understanding  with  Russia. 
The  Convention  of  Seoul,  signed  May  14th,  1896,  by  the 
representatives  of  the  two  Powers,  completed  by  that  of  July 
29th,  concluded  at  Moscow  at  the  time  of  the  coronation  of 
Nicholas  II.,  and  drawn  up  by  Prince  Lobanof  and  Marshal 
Yamagata,  accorded  Japan  merely  the  right  to  keep  1,000 
troops  in  Korea  for  the  protection  of  the  Japanese  telegraph 
wires  between  Fusan  and  Seoul  and  of  her  subjects  settled  in 
the  capital  and  in  the  open  ports  of  Fusan  and  Gensan.  Russia 
also  obtained  the  same  rights,  and,  moreover,  a concession 
to  construct  a telegraphic  line  from  Seoul  to  the  Siberian 
frontier. 

The  two  Powers  further  agreed  to  lend  the  Korean  Govern- 
ment their  support  for  the  reorganization  of  its  finances  and  a 
sufficient  police  force  to  maintain  order,  and  to  permit,  as  soon 
as  possible,  of  the  withdrawal  of  their  garrisons.  In  appear- 
ance it  was  a sort  of  Russo-Japanese  condominium  that  was 
established  in  Korea ; but  Russian  influence,  now  all-powerful 
with  the  King,  met  with  no  further  obstacle  after  the  restora- 
tion of  that  Sovereign  to  his  palace  in  February,  1897.  A 
decree,  ordering  that  all  railways  to  be  constructed  in  Korea 
should  have  the  same  gauge  as  that  of  the  Trans-Siberian 
Railway,  and  that  the  debt  of  ^-^00,000  contracted  by  Korea 
with  Japan  should  be  repaid,  and,  moreover,  that  none  but 
Russian  instructors  should  be  engaged  in  reorganizing  the 
Korean  army,  was  also  issued,  which  Japan  considered  a 
distinct  breach  of  the  Treaty  of  Moscow. 

Russian  influence  was  therefore,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
year  1897,  absolutely  preponderant  in  Korea  as  well  as  in 
China.  In  both  countries  the  Tsar’s  Government  had  played, 
with  extraordinary  ability,  the  part  of  protector  of  the  conquered 
against  the  abuses  of  the  conqueror,,  and  also  that  of  a 
redresser  of  wrongs,  whereby  it  won  universal  approbation 
throughout  the  Far  East.  The  Japanese  victories  now  appeared 


CHINA 


only  to  have  been  obtained  for  the  benefit  of  Russia,  who 
substituted  herself  everywhere  for  Japan,  in  Manchuria  as  well 
as  in  Korea,  and  thus  profited  very  considerably  by  the  War 
without  having  to  pay  any  of  its  expenses.  If  at  its  close 
Russia  had  the  discretion  to  perceive  the  advantages  which 
she  might  derive  from  intervention,  and  if  she  acted  with 
energy  and  decision,  she  also  knew  how  to  curb  the  im- 
petuosity of  her  admirals,  who  were  eager  to  commit  those 
very  faults  into  which  Japan  had  fallen,  which  undoubtedly 
would  have  brought  about  very  serious  European  complica- 
tions. She  therefore  at  first  abstained  from  annexing  the 
peninsula  of  Liao  tung  and  the  important  stations  of  Port 
Arthur  and  Talien-wan,  which  she  had  compelled  the  Japanese 
to  evacuate,  and  officially  she  made  no  annexations  in  Korea ; 
but,  possessing  the  right  to  construct  a railway  through  Central 
Manchuria  and  to  protect  its  works  by  her  own  troops,  and 
being  at  one  and  the  same  time  mistress  of  the  situation 
at  Seoul,  Russia  was  able  at  the  right  moment  to  annex 
either  Korea  or  Liao-tung,  and  bring  the  Trans-Siberian  to  the 
open  sea  through  one  or  the  other  of  these  two  peninsulas. 
She  hesitated  as  to  which  she  should  select;  the  first  was 
nearer  Peking,  the  second  brought  her  more  directly  to  the 
Pacific,  whence  she  could  menace  simultaneously  the  mouth 
of  the  Yang-tsze  and  the  South-east  of  Japan.  At  St  Peters- 
burg, however,  it  seemed  that  the  Government  was  waiting  for 
the  completion  of  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway,  which  was  pro- 
ceeding in  hot  haste,  and  which  it  was  expected  would  reach 
the  Amur  in  the  first  months  of  1900,  ere  the  psychological 
moment  should  arrive  to  strike  a decisive  blow. 

Side  by  side  with  immense  advantages  acquired  by  Russia, 
those  obtained  by  her  allies  seemed  insignificant.  Germany 
had  not  shown  herself  exacting  ; all  she  asked  was  a few  acres 
of  land  at  Tien-tsin  and  other  naval  ports  where  she  might 
establish  independent  concessions  intended  to  satisfy  her  sense 
of  dignity.  The  absence  of  special  concessions  had  not 
hitherto  prevented  Germany  from  achieving  an  extraordinary 
commercial  success  in  China,  but  the  future  will  prove  that  the 
German  Empire  entertains  great  designs  in  the  Far  East,  the 
realization  of  which  are  merely  postponed. 

As  to  France,  she  got  in  return  for  her  services  the  two 
Conventions  signed  at  Peking  by  her  Minister,  M.  Gdrard,  on 
June  20th,  1895.  The  first  of  these  documents  accords  divers 

259  s 2 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


facilities  to  the  extension  of  her  commerce  on  the  frontier 
between  China  and  Indo-China  ; the  second  ratifies,  to  her 
advantage,  the  frontier  limits.  A new  market — Semao,  in  the 
Yunnan — was  now  added  to  the  towns  of  Mong-Tze  and  Lung 
Chau,  opened  to  Franco-Annamite  commerce  in  1887.  The 
customs  on  goods  entering  or  leaving  these  markets  and 
passing  through  Tongking,  already  reduced  to  three-quarters 
of  the  maritime  Custom-house  tariff  of  1887,  were  again  lowered 
to  about  two-fifths  of  the  general  tariff,  so  far  as  concerned 
products  exported  from  any  other  Chinese  port,  or  intended  to 
be  re-imported  into  any  one  of  these  said  ports.  In  Article  5 
of  this  Convention  the  following  passage  occurs  : ‘ It  is  under- 
stood that  China,  in  the  exploitation  of  mines  situated  in  the 
provinces  of  Yunnan,  Kuang-si,  and  Kuang-Tung,  may  apply, 
in  the  first  place,  to  French  merchants  and  engineers,  the  ex- 
ploitation remaining  subject  to  the  rules  laid  down  by  the 
Imperial  Government  in  all  that  concerns  national  industry. 
It  is  agreed  that  the  railways  already  existing,  or  to  be  con- 
structed in  Annam,  may,  after  a mutual  understanding,  be 
extended  on  Chinese  territory.’  Finally,  it  was  further  stipu- 
lated that  the  French  and  Chinese  telegraph  lines  should  be 
combined.  The  Convention  respecting  the  frontier  definitely 
extended  the  French  possessions  to  the  eastern  shore  of  the 
upper  Mekong,  thereby  giving  France  the  territory  situated  on 
the  border  of  the  Shan  State  of  Xieng-hong.  England  in  1894 
had  admitted  the  right  of  suzerainty  of  China  over  this  little 
principality,  as  well  as  over  one  or  two  others,  thereby  creating 
a sort  of  neutral  zone  between  her  Indian  Empire  and  French 
Indo-China. 

A great  deal  was  made  over  this  Convention  in  France,  and 
the  energetic  manner  in  which  the  French  Minister  at  Peking 
had  been  able  to  obtain  these  concessions  under  the  very  nose 
of  his  English  colleague.  Sir  Nicholas  O’Connor.  The  ne- 
gotiations closed,  M.  Gdrard  proceeded  to  the  Tsung-li-Yamen 
on  the  day  arranged  for  the  exchange  of  signatures,  to  find, 
however,  only  one  of  the  two  Chinese  plenipotentiaries  present. 
This  personage  offered  profuse  apologies  for  the  non-appear- 
ance of  his  colleague.  ‘Nothing  should  have  prevented  his 
being  here,’  replied  the  French  diplomatist.  ‘I  pray  you  find 
him  at  once  and  tell  him  so.’  A few  moments  afterwards  the 
second  Celestial  appeared  alone,  looking  very  sheepish.  ‘And 
your  colleague,  is  he  coming  back?’  asked  M.  Gerard.  ‘No; 


CHINA 


I am  afraid  he  is  detained,  and  that  he  cannot  return.  Shall  I 
go  and  fetch  him?’  ‘ I beg  your  pardon,’  M.  Gdrard  shrewdly 
replied ; ‘ I will  keep  you  here,  and  will  go  myself  in  quest  of 
your  friend.’  At  the  end  of  an  hour  or  so  the  two  Celestials 
were  finally  brought  together,  and  on  being  asked  to  explain 
their  dilatory  conduct,  stated  that  the  British  Minister  was 
in  the  next  room,  threatening,  if  they  ventured  to  sign,  forth- 
with to  haul  down  his  flag.  M.  Gerard  was  soon  able  to 
convince  the  Celestial  plenipotentiaries  that  they  had  nothing 
to  fear,  but  that  they  must  immediately  affix  their  signatures  to 
the  document.  Sir  Nicholas  O’Connor,  he  assured  them,  once 
he  was  convinced  of  the  futility  of  his  intimidation,  would  soon 
turn  his  attention  to  other  affairs.  This  anecdote,  whilst  it 
reflects  great  credit  on  the  energy  of  the  French  Minister,  and 
displays  his  knowledge  of  the  Chinese  character  to  advantage, 
emphasizes  the  declining  influence  of  England  in  China  in 
1895  and  1896,  as  well  as  the  annoyance  experienced  by  this 
Power  at  the  ratification  of  the  French  frontier  and  its  extension 
towards  Mekong.  By  confirming  it,  China  violated,  it  is  true, 
the  engagements  she  had  made  when  England  recognised  her 
position  at  Xieng-hong,  but  this  did  not  concern  PTance,  for 
the  State  in  question  was  as  much  the  vassal  of  Annam  or  of 
Siam  as  it  is  of  Burmah  or  of  China. 

What  was  the  real  value  of  the  commercial  concessions 
granted  to  France  by  China,  and  concerning  which  her  press 
had  made  such  capital  ? The  reduction  of  the  duties  on  all 
products  passing  by  Tongking  would  have  been  of  great  value 
if  the  neighbouring  Chinese  province  had  been  a rich  one,  but 
it  is,  unfortunately,  quite  the  reverse.  It  is  now  time  to  glance 
over  the  region  that  can  be  provisioned  and  exploited  through 
Tongking.  It  includes  the  greater  part  of  Yunnan  and 
Kwang-si,  the  southern  half  of  Kwei-chau,  and  a small  part  of 
Kwang-tung,  that  long  and  narrow  band  of  territory  which  this 
province  projects  over  the  Tongking  frontier  between  the  sea 
and  Kuang-si.  The  Yunnan,  the  Kwang-si,  and  the  Kwei-chau 
are  the  three  poorest  provinces  of  China,  and  cover  a fifth  of 
her  territory,  whilst  possessing  barely  the  fifteenth  of  her  popula- 
tion, or,  in  other  words,  about  24,000,000  out  of  380,000,000. 
They  have  been  unfortunately  devastated  by  the  great  insurrec- 
tion of  the  Taipings  and  the  Muhammedan  revolts,  especially 
Yunnan ; the  country  is  really  only  a conglomeration  of 
mountains  and  plateaux,  some  of  them  6,500  feet  in  height,  and, 

261 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


moreover,  the  communications  are  very  scanty,  and  it  would 
cost  an  enormous  sum  to  improve  them.  The  report  of  the 
Lyons  Mission,  which  explored  this  part  of  China  in  1895-97, 
frequently  mentions  the  great  difficulties  of  transport  and  the 
steepness  of  the  ascents,  such,  for  instance,  as  the  famous 
Imperial  road  of  Ten  Thousand  Steps,  which  you  ascend  from 
the  bank  of  the  Red  River  to  the  Yunnan  plateau,  between 
Manhao  and  Mong  tze,  and  which  in  a distance  of  only  30 
miles  rises  from  485  to  more  than  6,500  feet.  It  also  mentions 
the  paucity  of  population,  as  contrasted  with  its  superabundance, 
in  the  basin  of  the  Yang-tsze-Kiang  and  the  coast  provinces, 
In  the  Far  East  the  mountains  are  almost  invariably  barren, 
even  when  there  is  very  little  cultivable  soil  in  the  plain 
below.  It  is  said  that  the  Yunnan  is  extremely  rich  in  mineral 
ore,  but,  as  once  remarked  an  acute  observer,  who  has  recently 
visited  nearly  the  whole  of  China,  when  explorers  find  nothing 
worth  noticing  on  the  surface  of  a country,  they  generally  arrive 
at  the  conclusion  that  there  must  be  something  worth  looking 
for  underneath.  Undoubtedly  both  copper  and  tin  have  been 
exploited  for  years  past  in  Yunnan,  but  thus  far  the  actual 
wealth  of  these  mines  is  unknown,  and  it  would  be  mere  matter 
of  conjecture  to  affirm  whether  they  are  worth  working  or  not, 
or  whether  it  would  pay  to  construct  a railway  300  miles  in 
length  to  transport  the  ore,  as  these  Chinese  provinces  on 
the  frontier  neighbouring  Tongking  produce  neither  silk,  tea, 
nor  any  other  valuable  Chinese  export  product,  and  do  not 
offer  a particularly  brilliant  prospect  at  present.  As  to  Article  5, 
relating  to  mines,  if  taken  in  the  literal  sense,  it  is  simply  a 
truism,  but  if  one  wishes  to  discover  in  it  a disguised  engage- 
ment, and  read  ‘ ought  ’ instead  of  ‘ may,’  it  is  a violation  of  the 
clause  granted  to  the  most  favoured  nation  inserted  in  all 
Chinese  treaties  with  European  Powers.  France  had  soon  to 
recognise  its  futility  on  January  15th,  1896,  at  the  time  of  the 
signing  of  the  Anglo-French  treaty  relating  to  the  affairs  of 
Siam,  by  which,  it  is  true,  she  profited  little  by  the  difficult 
circumstances  in  which  Great  Britain  then  found  herself,  and 
the  two  Governments  of  Paris  and  London  agreed  that  all  the 
rights  and  privileges  acquired,  or  to  be  acquired,  either  in  the 
Yunnan  or  more  to  the  north  at  Sze-chuan,  were  to  be  equally 
shared. 

The  profit  which  France  might  have  obtained  from  the  con- 
vention of  June  20th,  1895,  was  thus  reduced  to  little  or 

262 


CHINA 


nothing.  During  the  following  year  the  negotiations  which 
were  being  persistently  pursued  at  Peking  brought  about  other 
results.  The  right  to  reconstruct  the  arsenal  at  Foochow 
established  by  the  French  in  1866,  and  which  they  destroyed 
in  1884  under  Admiral  Courbet,  was  again  restored  to  them. 
Several  naval  engineers  are  working  there  at  present,  and  French 
foundries  are  supplying  material.  Such  has  been  the  share 
derived  by  France  in  the  concessions  made  by  China,  to  obtain 
which  the  nations  made  such  flattering  advances  to  Li  Hung- 
chang  when  that  astute  old  gentleman  made  his  recent  famous 
tour  through  Europe  and  America.  It  certainly  compensated 
after  a fashion  for  the  loss  of  the  custom  of  Japan,  who  at  one 
time  gave  frequent  orders  to  French  factories,  but  who  now 
deals  exclusively  with  England  and  America  for  the  ships  and 
cannon  necessary  for  her  greatly  augmented  fleet. 

Meanwhile,  the  French  Minister  at  Peking  has  exerted 
himself  in  a creditable  manner  for  the  benefit  of  the  Catholic 
missionaries.  He  has  obtained  the  abrogation  of  those  regu- 
lations which  prohibited  missionaries  from  purchasing  estates 
in  the  interior  of  China,  and  exacted  a promise  that  the  next 
edition  of  the  Ta-tsing-lu-lieh,  a collection  of  laws  issued  by  the 
Tsing  Dynasty,  should  appear  without  the  list  of  punishments 
against  missionaries  contained  in  the  edition  of  1892.  Finally, 
he  obtained  authorization  for  the  Lazarists  to  rebuild  on  the 
same  spot  the  cathedral  at  Tien-tsin,  burnt  at  the  time  of  the 
massacre  of  the  missionaries  and  nuns  during  the  insurrection 
of  June,  1870. 

It  is  assuredly  as  the  protectoress  of  Catholicism  that  France 
has  of  late  years  most  worthily  played  her  part  in  the  Far  East. 
Possibly  she  has  not  known  how  to  convert  to  her  material 
advantage  the  influence  which  ought  to  be  derived  in  China 
from  her  religious  position,  and  doubtless  French  policy  in  the 
Celestial  Empire  has  been  lacking  in  enterprise.  She  certainly 
did  not  derive  from  the  intervention  in  favour  of  China  a 
profit  proportionate  to  the  risks  incurred,  and  has  obtained 
from  China  not  only  less  than  her  ally,  Russia,  but  even 
than  England,  and  by  uselessly  opposing  the  demands  of 
this  latter  Power  she  has  run  the  risk  of  irritating  without  any 
benefit  that  ill-feeling  which  divides  these  two  great  Western 
nations. 

After  a period  of  inaction  during  the  year  which  followed  the 
War,  the  British  Governmentj  if  it  has  not  positively  reconquered 

263 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


its  former  influence,  has  at  least  gained  a renewed  hearing  at 
Peking.  Although  China  trembled  before  Russia,  the  presence 
in  her  waters  of  the  British  fleet  did  not  fail  to  inspire  her  with 
a feeling  of  profound  respect ; but,  once  the  first  moment  of 
alarm  was  over,  she  again  bethought  herself  as  much  as  possible 
to  begin  afresh  her  old  game  of  pendulum  between  the  various 
Powers.  The  slow  work  of  British  diplomacy  throughout  the 
year  1896  fructified  in  the  signing  of  the  Anglo-Chinese  Con- 
vention of  February  4th,  1897,  by  which  China  conceded  to 
Great  Britain  certain  important  modifications  on  the  Burmese 
frontier ; granted  her  back  a part  of  the  Shan  States ; recog- 
nised her  right  to  establish  a Consul  somewhere  in  Western 
Yunnan,  Manwyne,  or  Chunning-fu ; engaged  to  open  the 
roads  leading  to  these  places  as  well  as  to  others ; and  finally 
allowed  the  railways  to  be  constructed  in  Yunnan  to  be  united 
with  those  of  Burmah.  Lastly — and  this  is  the  most  important 
point  of  all — a separate  article  prescribed  that  the  Si-Kiang,  or 
VVest  River,  which  flows  through  Canton,  should  be  open  to 
European  navigation  as  far  as  Woochow,  on  the  Kwang-si  and 
Kwang-tung  frontier,  125  miles  from  Canton.  The  two  river 
ports  Samshui  and  Wuchow  became  treaty  ports,  and  European 
concessions  were  established  there. 

This  was  for  England  some  return  for  the  mortification  she 
had  experienced  twenty  months  earlier  at  the  time  of  the 
Gerard  Convention.  If,  therefore,  in  Yunnan,  in  spite  of  the 
equality  of  rights  existing  between  Great  Britain  and  France, 
the  advantage  was  with  the  latter,  by  reason  of  the  natural 
conditions  rendering  access  less  difficult  from  Tonking  than 
from  Burmah,  the  opening  of  the  West  River  was  a check 
for  French  policy,  which  had  vigorously  opposed  it.  By 
this  waterway  European  vessels — that  is  to  say,  almost  exclu- 
sively British  steamers  coming  from  Hong-Kong — would,  in 
the  first  place,  be  able  to  trade  with  the  rich  valley  of  the 
lower  Si-kiang,  which  crosses  Kwang-tung,  and  reascends  to 
the  frontier  of  Kwang-tung,  where  they  would  meet  the  junks 
which  bring  to  this  point  at  a small  cost  the  varied  products 
of  this  province,  and,  moreover,  distribute  merchandise  from 
Hong-Kong  to  the  extreme  navigable  points  of  the  West 
River  and  its  affluents.  These  points  are  situated  at  a great 
distance  in  the  interior,  almost  on  the  frontiers  of  Yunnan  and 
Tongking,  and  at  Lung-chau,  thirty  miles  from  Lang-son,  one 
can  see  at  high  tide  Junks  from  Canton.  Therefore  all  the 

264 


CHINA 


commerce  of  Kwang-si  which  France  had  so  coveted  was  to  be 
drained  by  this  new  channeL 

French  diplomacy  endeavoured  to  repair  the  unfavourable 
impression  produced  by  this  Anglo  Chinese  treaty,  which 
effaced  the  greater  part  of  the  advantages  conceded  to  her  on 
the  frontier  of  Tongking,  and  in  June,  1897,  it  was  stated  in 
Paris  that  China  had  ceded  to  France  the  right  to  construct  a 
railway  from  Lao-kai,  on  the  Red  River,  between  Tongking 
and  Yunnan-hsien,  the  capital  of  Yunnan,  and  to  prolong  it 
to  Nanning-fu  and  even  northward  beyond  the  line  projected 
to  Lang-son  and  Lung-chau.  This  last  concession  should 
reserve  for  France  all  the  traffic  of  the  western  Kwang-si,  pro- 
vided that  it  is  really  worth  while  constructing  a railway  to 
obtain  it ; for  unquestionably  navigable  rivers  have  a distinct 
advantage  over  railways  in  so  mountainous  and  poor  a country. 
As  soon  as  the  former  are  opened  they  can  be  navigated, 
whereas  it  will  require  time  to  construct  the  railways,  which, 
moreover,  are  very  costly.  In  February,  1898,  I was  able  to 
see  for  myself  that  the  Si  kiang  was  already  traversed  by 
steamers,  whereas  the  railway  from  Lang-son  to  Lung-chau,  the 
concession  for  which  was  given  in  1896,  was  not  even  com- 
menced, on  account  of  the  many  difficulties  that  had  arisen 
with  the  local  authorities.  The  opening  in  1899  of  Nanning 
to  foreign  commerce  is  well  calculated  to  deprive  France  even 
of  this  little  traffic,  which  will  revert  to  Canton. 


265 


CHAPTER  X 

CHINA  AND  THE  POWERS,  1897-99—' SPHERES  OF  INFLUENCE,’ 
AND  THE  ‘ OPEN  DOOR  ’ 

Political  calm  in  the  Far  East  during  the  summer  of  1897 — Provisionary 
regulation  of  the  questions  that  divided  the  Powers,  and  the  main- 
tenance of  old  Chinese  methods — Landing  of  the  Germans  at  Kiao-Chau 
in  Shan-tung  in  1897 — England’s  anger  at  this  act,  and  her  efforts  to 
avert  the  probable  action  of  Russia  in  Pe-chi-li — Anglo-Chinese  Con- 
vention of  February,  1898 — Opening  of  all  the  waterways  to  European 
navigation — The  policy  of  the  ‘open  door’ — China  recognises  in 
March,  1898,  the  occupation  of  Kiao-chau  and  concession  of  the  rail- 
way granted  to  Germany  in  Shan-tung — Session  to  Russia  on  lease  of 
Port  Arthur,  and  the  immediate  occupation  of  this  port — Franco- 
Chinese  Convention,  April,  1898 — Divers  conventions  granted  in  the 
Southern  Provinces  and  session  of  the  Bay  of  Kwang-chau-wan — 
Irritation  of  Great  Britain,  who  obtains  new  and  important  advantages 
in  June,  1898 — Session  of  Wei-hai-wei  at  the  entrance  of  the  province 
of  Pe-chi-li,  and  of  Kowloon,  opposite  Hong-Kong — Fresh  Anglo- 
Russian  difficulties  in  November,  1898 — Railway  and  other  concessions 
granted  to  foreigners  throughout  the  Celestial  Empire. 

After  the  diplomatic  wrangling  which  followed  the  war,  a lull 
occurred  in  the  summer  of  1897  in  the  Far  East.  Each  of 
the  European  Powers  interested  in  China — Russia,  France, 
and  England — had  obtained  her  share  of  the  spoil.  That  of 
Germany  was  generally  deemed  modest,  but  it  was  believed 
she  had  no  political  interest  in  the  Celestial  Empire,  and  was 
quite  content  to  develop  her  commerce.  Meanwhile  Russia 
and  Japan  had  patched  up  their  quarrel  in  Korea.  Dou-btless 
their  arrangements  were  not  of  a definite  character,  and  their 
mutual  ambitions  rather  dormant  than  satisfied ; but  the  ad- 
vantages already  obtained,  and  the  preparations  which  both 
nations  would  have  to  make  in  order  to  be  ready  when  they 
wished  to  return  to  the  game,  seemed  to  promise  a respite  for 
some  years  to  come.  Russia  was  constructing  her  railway, 

266 


CHINA 


which,  notwithstanding  all  the  diligence  brought  to  bear  upon 
its  completion,  was  not  expected  to  reach  the  river  Amur  until 
the  end  of  1899,  and  the  Pacific  until  1903  or  1904.  Japan, 
whilst  preparing  for  the  arduous  task  of  reorganizing  Formosa, 
was  arming  to  the  teeth,  so  as  to  be  ready  in  case  of  trouble 
with  Russia,  which  she  feared  inevitable.  She  doubled  her 
army,  and  ordered  a first-class  fleet  to  be  built  in  Europe  and 
America,  which  was  to  insure  her  maritime  supremacy  on  the 
coasts  of  China,  but  which  could  not  be  ready  until  1904  or  1905. 
France,  having  definitely  pacified  Tongking,  was  occupied 
in  studying  the  route  of  the  various  railway  lines  which  had  been 
conceded  to  her.  England  was  hastening  the  construction  of 
her  railways  in  Burmah,  and  sending  her  steamers  into  the 
West  River,  while  her  capital,  amalgamated  with  that  of 
Germany  and  America,  had  the  larger  share  in  the  industrial 
movement  which  had  been  created  in  Shanghai,  and  seemed 
likely  to  extend  to  other  ports,  especially  after  the  treaty  of 
Shimonosaki. 

China  herself,  profiting  by  this  lull,  returned  to  her  old 
sleepy  habits  ; she  had  learnt  nothing,  and  forgotten  nothing. 
When  her  chief  statesman,  Li  Hung-chang,  was  sent  to 
Europe  and  America  in  1896,  it  was  not  only  because  he  was 
better  equipped  than  anyone  else,  by  his  long  intercourse  with 
foreigners,  to  treat  with  them,  but  principally  because  he  was  in 
disgrace.  This  mission  had  been  offered  to  Prince  Kung,  and 
even  to  Prince  Ching,  the  Emperor’s  uncles.  ‘ What  have  we 
done,’  these  illustrious  personages  probably  exclaimed,  ‘that 
we  should  be  subjected  to  this  humiliation,  and  sent  on  a 
mission  to  the  barbarians  ?’  The  tour  of  Li  Hung-chang  was, 
therefore,  intended  as  a severe  punishment,  supplemented 
by  the  loss  of  his  peacock’s  feather  and  his  yellow  jacket.  If 
the  observations  which  are  attributed  to  him  with  respect  to 
progress  are  true,  his  influence  must  incontestably  have 
diminished,  possibly  owing  to  the  vicissitudes  to  which  he  has 
been  subjected  since  his  return  to  China.  Be  this  as  it  may, 
one  thing  is  clear : he  has  not  hitherto  been  able  to  overcome 
either  the  Court  prejudices  or  those  of  the  overwhelming 
majority  of  the  literati. 

The  only  progress  made  has  been  permission  for  the  con- 
struction, under  the  direction  of  English  and  American 
engineers,  of  a line  from  Tien-tsin  to  Peking,  to  slightly 
prolong  beyond  the  Great  Wall  the  one  which  starts  from 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


Tien  tsin  and  the  mouth  of  the  Pei-ho,  and  ascends  northwards 
along  the  coast  of  Pe-chi-li,  and  to  authorize  the  reconstruction 
of  the  little  line  from  Shanghai  to  its  deep-water  port,  Woosung. 
These  works  organized  in  those  parts  of  the  Empire  most 
frequented  by  Europeans,  in  the  great  open  port  of  Shanghai, 
where  half  the  foreign  population  of  China  lives,  and  in  the 
capital,  the  residence  of  the  diplomatic  corps,  were  calculated 
to  create  an  illusory  effect.  The  English  may  also  have  wished 
to  unite  Peking  to  the  sea,  which  they  dominated  in  the  Far 
East  as  elsewhere,  to  spite  Russia  for  having  installed  herself  in 
Manchuria.  A longer  railway  from  Peking  to  Hankow, 
traversing  over  650  miles  of  the  heart  of  China,  had  been  pro- 
jected since  1889,  and  a Chinese  railway  director  named  Sheng 
had  been  commanded  to  collaborate  in  the  matter  of  its  con- 
struction with  Li  Hung-chang  and  his  rival,  the  celebrated 
Chang-Chih-Tung,  Viceroy  of  Hankow.  Much  more  progres- 
sive in  all  probability  than  Li  Hung-chang,  Sheng  seemed 
really  desirous  of  building  this  line ; but  he  insisted  that  the 
material  should  be  manufactured  in  China,  and  to  this  effect  he 
had  erected  at  Hanyang,  near  Hankow,  and  his  capital  Wu-chang, 
three  towns  which  in  reality  form  one  vast  city,  an  immense 
foundry,  which  was  not  likely,  at  any  rate  for  many  years  to 
come,  to  supply  the  necessary  material.  After  the  War  the 
united  efforts  of  the  Ministers  of  France  and  Belgium  had 
obtained  permission  for  a Franco  Belgian  financial  syndicate  to 
construct  the  line  for  the  Chinese  Government,  and  then  to 
exploit  it.  Obstacles,  however,  were  thrown  in  the  way,  and 
although  the  Chinese  had  commenced  the  works  on  the  Peking 
side,  they  were  stopped  in  the  autumn  of  1897,  owing  to  diffi- 
culties which  had  arisen  concerning  the  interpretation  of  several 
clauses  in  the  contract  It  was  the  old  story  of  Chinese  shifty 
dilatoriness,  and  nothing  came  of  any  one  of  the  reforms  pro- 
posed, civil  or  military. 

Momentarily  satisfied  by  their  newly-acquired  privileges,  the 
foreigners  ceased,  for  the  time  being,  clamouring  for  fresh 
favours.  Everything  was  calm  at  Peking,  and  no  one  seemed 
to  see  any  grave  event  likely  to  occur  in  the  Far  East,  at  any 
rate,  before  the  termination  of  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway, 
which  would  give  Russia  the  chance  of  making  an  advance  step, 
when  all  of  a sudden,  in  the  month  of  November,  1897,  Europe 
learnt  with  surprise  that  Germany  had  landed  sailors  in  the 
Bay  of  Kiao-chau,  in  the  Shan-tung  Peninsula.  The  motive 

268 


CHINA 


for  this  unexpected  movement,  we  were  assured,  was  to  put 
pressure  on  the  Government  at  Peking  to  conclude  certain 
long-standing  negotiations  connected  with  the  assassination 
of  two  German  missionaries,  and  which,  as  usual  in  China, 
dragged  unconcernedly  along.  At  first  the  importance  of  this 
matter  did  not  seem  to  create  the  impression  that  might  have 
been  expected.  Many  even  believed  that  it  was  but  an  ingenious 
artifice  on  the  part  of  the  German  Emperor  to  display  the  uses 
of  a navy,  and  to  force  the  Reichstag  to  vote  the  necessary 
credit  for  the  increase  of  the  fleet.  But  when  William  II.  sent 
into  the  Far  East  his  brother  Prince  Henry,  in  command  of  a 
squadron,  requesting  him  at  the  time  of  his  departure  to  make 
the  weight  of  his  ‘ mailed  fist  ’ felt,  if  need  arose,  there  was  now 
no  possible  doubt  that  the  occupation  of  Kiao-chau  was  defini- 
tive, and  that  Germany  was  paying  herself,  tardily,  it  is  true, 
but  with  less  ceremony  than  her  allies,  for  the  services  she  had 
rendered  to  China  in  1895.  She  had  taken,  no  doubt,  a long 
time  about  it,  for  she  was  hesitating  as  to  which  place  she 
should  choose  for  the  naval  station  she  was  anxious  to  establish 
in  the  Far  East. 

If  the  landing  at  Kiao-chau  had  been  thoroughly  matured, 
it,  nevertheless,  appeared  that  the  Berlin  Cabinet  had  not  taken 
the  precaution  to  insure  the  consent  of  the  other  Powers.  It 
was  asked  if  Russia  herself,  who  had  her  eye  on  this  bay,  in 
which  her  Far  Eastern  squadron  had  passed  the  winter  of 
1896-97,  had  not  been  caught  napping.  When  the  occupation 
of  the  bay  became  known  in  England,  public  opinion  became 
violently  excited.  Although  Germany  seemed  to  have  gradually 
detached  herself  from  the  Franco-Russian  group,  and  to  have 
approached  Great  Britain,  and  although  English  and  German 
banks  combined  had  agreed  in  1897  to  float  a second  Chinese 
loan  of  ^16,000,000  on  the  European  market,  and  notwithstand- 
ing that  the  finances  of  the  two  countries  had  often  co-operated 
in  China,  the  cordiality  which  exists  between  the  subjects  of 
Queen  Victoria  and  those  of  her  grandson  were  even  now 
strained  in  the  Far  East.  As  soon  as  the  occupation  of  Kiao- 
chau  became  known,  there  was  a positive  explosion  of  invective 
throughout  the  English  press,  soon  followed  by  an  avalanche  of 
jokes  when  William  II.  toasted  his  brother,  on  the  eve  of  his 
departure  for  the  Chinese  Seas,  in  an  amusingly  melodramatic 
speech.  The  misadventures  of  Prince  Henry,  who  was  delayed 
by  divers  accidents,  and  constantly  obliged  to  coal  at  English 

269 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 

naval  stations,  added  not  a little  to  the  general  and  very  ironical 
merriment 

It  was  not  so  much  the  action  of  Germany  that  gave  rise 
to  genuine  anxiety  in  England  as  the  fear  that  the  Government 
of  the  Tsar  might  take  advantage  of  it  to  make  another  advance 
in  North  China.  If  it  mattered  little  to  the  English  that 
Russia  should  occupy  a harbour  free  of  ice  throughout  the  year, 
they  were  greatly  exercised  at  the  prospect  of  her  approaching 
the  capital  of  the  Celestial  Empire  close  enough  to  obtain 
direct  influence  in  Chinese  affairs.  England  insisted  that  a 
port  of  this  sort  should  be  open  to  the  commerce  of  all  nations, 
precisely  like  her  own  Hong-Kong  or  the  Treaty  Ports. 
Thus,  while  Mr.  Balfour,  in  the  early  days  of  1898,  almost 
invited  the  Russians  to  secure  for  themselves  an  issue  to  the 
open  sea,  a few  days  later  another  of  Her  Majesty’s  Ministers 
—Sir  Michael  Hicks-Beach — declared,  amid  the  applause  of 
the  entire  press,  ‘ that  the  British  Government  was  absolutely 
determined,  at  any  cost,  even  at  the  risk  of  war,  that  the  “ open 
door”  in  China  should  not  be  closed.’  In  order  to  oppose  the 
quiet  advance  of  Russia,  Great  Britain  anticipated  her  by 
appropriating  her  hitherto  successful  financial  policy,  and  offered 
to  lend  the  “Son  of  Heaven”  ^16,000,000,  which  he  particu- 
larly wanted.  This  last  of  the  three  great  Chinese  loans  was 
the  least  guaranteed.  The  Customs  receipts  no  longer  sufficed 
to  assure  the  interest,  and  it  therefore  gave  the  lender  a greater 
excuse  for  meddling  in  the  internal  administration,  and  to 
exercise  the  stronger  pressure  on  the  politics  of  Peking.  The 
conditions  for  this  loan  included  the  addition  to  the  list  of 
open  ports  of  Talien-wan,  in  the  peninsula  of  Liao-tung,  which 
Russia  had  long  coveted.  By  throwing  it  open  to  the  com- 
merce of  all  the  Powers,  its  appropriation  by  any  one  of  them 
would  be  rendered  very  difficult,  if  not  impossible. 

The  game  was  certainly  very  well  played,  but  in  order  to 
carry  it  to  an  issue,  it  was  necessary  to  have  a sufficient  force 
on  the  spot  to  impose  upon  China  the  acceptation  of  its  con- 
ditions. Now,  the  season  was  not  propitious ; in  winter,  when 
the  Pei-ho  is  frozen  over,  Russia  must  remain  more  powerful 
at  Peking  than  England.  Scared  by  the  threats  of  M.  Pavloff, 
the  Russian  Charge  d’Affaires,  the  Tsung-li-Yamen  dared  not 
accept  the  demands  of  Sir  Claude  Macdonald,  the  English 
Minister,  notwithstanding  the  energetic  manner  in  which  they 
were  presented. 


270 


CHINA 


The  direct  loan  was  consequently  not  concluded,  Talien-wan 
was  not  opened,  and  Great  Britain  had  to  content  herself  with 
an  agreement  signed  at  the  end  of  February,  1898,  in  virtue  of 
which  she  obtained,  however,  some  very  important  concessions. 
European  steamers  were,  after  June,  1898,  to  be  allowed  to 
navigate  in  all  the  waters  of  the  Empire.  No  part  of  the  basin 
of  the  Yang-tsze-Kiang  was  ever  to  be  ceded  or  rented  to  any 
foreign  Power ; a port  was  to  be  opened  in  the  province  of 
Yunnan,  and  the  position  of  Inspector-General  of  Customs 
was  to  be  reserved  exclusively  to  a British  subject,  so  long  as 
British  commerce  should  hold  the  first  rank  in  the  foreign 
commerce  of  China.  The  value  of  these  concessions  is  apparent 
when  we  consider  that  the  basin  of  the  Yang-tsze  is  the  richest 
and  most  thickly-peopled  part  of  the  Middle  Kingdom.  As  a 
commentary  upon  this  agreement,  the  House  of  Commons  in 
March  included  in  the  Address  to  the  Throne:  ‘That  it  was  of 
vital  importance  for  the  commerce  and  influence  of  Great 
Britain  that  the  independence  of  China  should  be  respected.’ 
In  the  course  of  the  discussion  Mr.  Curzon,  Under-Secretary 
for  Foreign  Affairs,  declared  in  the  first  place  that  England 
was  opposed  to  any  attack  upon  the  independence  or  integrity 
of  China,  and  that  in  the  second  she  would  resist  any  attempt 
to  close  any  Chinese  port  to  her  commerce,  so  long  as  it 
was  open,  or  to  be  opened,  to  the  commerce  of  any  other 
nation,  and  that,  moreover,  she  was  determined  to  maintain 
in  their  integrity  all  the  privileges  which  she  had  obtained 
by  the  treaty  of  Tien-tsin  in  1858.  This  was  the  enunciation 
of  the  famous  policy  known  as  the  ‘ open  door.’ 

Meanwhile,  Germany,  in  the  same  month  of  March,  made 
China  ratify  the  occupation  of  Kiao-chau,  which  had  been  leased 
to  her  for  ninety-nine  years,  and  which  she  hastened,  it  is  true,  to 
declare  a free  port  An  extensive  radius  of  railways  was  at  the 
same  time  conceded  to  her  in  Shan-tung,  which  she  had  con- 
stituted a ‘ sphere  of  interest,’  and  the  right  of  pre-emption  on 
all  the  railway  and  mining  concessions  which  the  Chinese 
Government  might  grant  in  that  province. 

Russia,  on  her  side,  alarmed  at  the  Anglo-Chinese  negotia- 
tions, came  to  the  conclusion  that  if  she  delayed  her  occupation 
of  the  peninsula  of  Liao-tung  any  longer,  she  would  risk,  if  not 
being  forestalled  by  a rival,  at  least  witnessing  the  creation  of 
international  interests  calculated  to  render  the  execution  of 
her  projects  more  difficult.  She  hesitated  no  longer,  and  on 

271 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 

March  27th,  1898,  obliged  China  to  sign  the  Convention  ceding 
to  her  the  lease  of  Port  Arthur  and  Talien-wan,  and  the  authori- 
zation to  construct  a branch  line,  uniting  these  ports  to  the  East 
Chinese  Railway.  Thus  she  obtained  her  object  The  Trans- 
Siberian  had  now  a terminus  on  the  open  sea,  and  could  threaten 
Peking  from  the  entrance  of  the  Gulf  of  Pe-chi-li.  It  looked 
for  a moment  as  though  the  long  deferred  struggle  between  the 
Whale  and  the  Elephant  were  really  about  to  take  place.  Two 
English  cruisers  were  stationed  at  Port  Arthur  when  this  point 
was  ceded  to  Russia.  They  put  to  sea,  but  on  March  29th 
the  formidable  British  Far  East  fleet,  which  had  been  im- 
mensely increased  during  the  winter,  was  mobilized,  one  part 
steaming  towards  the  north,  while  the  other  remained  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Yang-tsze,  ready  to  occupy,  so  it  was  said,  the 
Chusan  Islands,  which  command  the  entrance  to  the  river. 
Russia  was  exceedingly  prudent,  and,  in  order  not  to  add  the 
powerful  support  of  Japan  to  that  of  England,  on  March  i8th 
she  renounced  all  active  intervention  in  Korea,  and  left  that 
country  open,  if  not  precisely  to  the  political  action,  at  least 
to  the  economic  interest  of  the  Land  of  the  Rising  Sun.  A 
conflict  was  averted,  but  the  inevitable  opposition  of  Russian 
and  English  interests,  added  to  an  accumulation  in  China  Seas 
of  warships  of  every  nationality,  hastily  sent  there  after  the 
affair  of  Kiao-chau.  kept  up  a well-founded  feeling  of  anxiety  and 
irritation  in  the  minds  of  the  British  public,  further  increased 
by  a Franco-Chinese  agreement  signed  in  April.  France 
remained,  according  to  her  habitual  policy,  confined  in  the 
poor  regions  of  the  south,  but  obtained  from  China  the  promise 
not  to  alienate  on  any  account  the  territory  comprised  in  the 
three  frontier  provinces  of  Tongking,  and  never  to  cede  to  any 
other  Power  than  France  the  island  of  Hainan.  To  these 
clauses  were  added  the  renewal  of  the  concession  of  the  Yunnan 
Railway,  and  finally  the  cession  on  a long  lease  of  the  Bay  of 
Kwang-chau-Wang,  situated  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Lei- 
chau  Peninsula  opposite  Hainan,  and,  moreover,  the  Chinese 
engaged  to  appoint  a French  Director-General  of  Posts.  This, 
of  course,  was  an  answer  to  the  promise  obtained  by  Great 
Britain  respecting  the  Director-General  of  Customs,  and  it 
might  have  been  of  great  importance  to  the  French  by  placing 
in  their  hands  the  telegraph  lines  of  the  Celestial  Empire  which 
joined,  independently  of  the  British  cable,  the  lines  in  Indo- 
China  which  stretched  to  the  Russian  lines  in  Siberia  and  thence 

272 


CHINA 


on  to  Paris.  Notwithstanding  the  great  political  interest  at  stake, 
this  advantage  was  unhappily  allowed  to  lapse,  no  Director- 
General  of  Posts  has  been  nominated,  this  post. still  remaining 
united  to  that  of  the  Customs,  under  the  direction  of  Sir 
Robert  Hart.  With  respect  to  the  other  concessions  obtained 
by  France,  it  does  not  appear  that  England  or  any  other  Power 
need  be  much  concerned  about  them.  Hainan  may  have 
some  importance  to  France,  who  could  never  permit  any  other 
Power  to  establish  itself  at  the  entrance  to  the  Gulf  of  Tongking. 
As  to  the  harbour  of  Kwang-chau,  which  is  not  of  the  first 
rank,  the  mouth  being  narrow,  it  does  not  extend  the  French 
sphere  of  action,  but  leaves  her  mewed  up  where  she  was  in 
the  far  south.  It  has  only  brought  her  annoyances,  and  is 
certainly  not  a strategical  point  of  primary  importance,  whence 
she  might  menace  the  position  of  her  rivals  in  the  China 
Seas. 

Far  more  important  were  the  cessions  of  territory  soon  after- 
wards made  to  Great  Britain  in  compensation  for  the  occupation 
of  the  ports  of  Liao-tung  by  the  Russians.  Their  value  did  not 
consist  in  their  extent,  which  was  not  considerable,  being  merely 
Wei  hai-wei  and  a little  town  in  Shan-tung,  and  400  square 
miles  of  territory  in  the  peninsula  of  Kowloon,  and  immediately 
opposite  Hong-Kong.  Both  were  leased  for  ninety-nine  years. 
The  strategical  value  is,  however,  of  the  highest  importance. 
In  the  peninsula  of  Kowloon,  where  the  English  had  up  to  this 
time  only  a small  piece  of  land,  they  now  came  into  posses- 
sion of  all  the  heights  and  bays  necessary  to  shelter  the  port 
of  Hong-Kong  from  attack  and  to  insure  its  extension.  Wei- 
hai-wei,  on  the  other  hand,  gave  them  precisely  what  they  had 
long  coveted — a naval  station  in  the  North  of  China,  so  that 
when  their  squadron  was  in  these  latitudes  it  would  no  longer 
be  obliged  to  make  a voyage  of  from  four  to  five  days  in  order 
to  take  in  provisions  or  seek  shelter  at  Hong-Kong.  Wei- 
hai-wei,  the  fortifications  of  which  were  immediately  under- 
taken, in  a measure  weakens  Port  Arthur,  the  two  being  exactly 
opposite  each  other,  with  a stretch  of  sea  of  only  sixty  miles 
between  them,  and  the  former  is  not  much  more  distant  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Pei-ho.  Needless  to  say,  being  in  possession 
of  so  excellent  a station,  England  with  her  superior  fleet  will 
necessarily  during  many  years  to  come  be  in  a position  to 
prevent  the  Russian  squadron  interfering  with  her  projects, 
and  also,  notwithstanding  the  shortness  of  the  journey,  to 

273  T 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


impede  any  assistance  by  sea  being  afforded  to  Russian 
troops  who  might  be  operating  in  the  north  of  China.  The 
English,  moreover,  can  from  this  position,  by  a dexterous 
movement,  cut  the  line  of  railway  between  Tien-tsin  and  the 
Great  Wall. 

Notwithstanding  these  advantages,  the  insatiable  British 
public  was  not  satisfied,  and  complained  that  the  Government 
had  allowed  Germany  to  occupy  a privileged  position  in  Shan- 
tung, and  had,  moreover,  promised  not  to  interfere  with  her 
rights  in  that  province,  nor  to  construct  a railway  starting  from 
Wei-hai-wei,  and,  moreover,  to  consider  this  place  as  a sort  of 
Far  Eastern  Gibraltar  without  any  commercial  pretensions, 
thereby  consenting  to  the  creation  of  a German  sphere  of 
interest  in  opposition  to  the  policy  of  the  ‘ open  door.’  When 
Parliament  was  prorogued  in  August,  the  Chinese  Question 
had  been  discussed  no  fewer  than  eight  times,  and  the  Salis- 
bury Ministry  had  been  frequently  and  very  bitterly  attacked 
by  its  own  supporters.  The  intemperate  oratory  of  certain 
Ministers,  and  notably  of  Mr.  Chamberlain,  who  unhesitatingly 
accused  Russia  of  bad  faith,  and  even  went  so  far  as  to  say 
one  must  remember  when  dealing  with  Russia  the  old  proverb, 

‘ He  who  sups  with  the  devil  must  have  a long  spoon,’  had  not 
a little  contributed  to  excite  public  opinion  in  Great  Britain. 
In  order  to  soothe  matters  a little,  the  Cabinet  declared  to 
Parliament  that  its  Minister  at  Peking  had  been  authorized  to 
inform  the  Chinese  Government  that  Great  Britain  would  lend 
its  support  in  order  to  resist  an  attempt  on  the  part  of  any 
Power  to  commit  an  act  of  aggression  against  China  under  the 
pretext  that  she  had  granted  to  a British  subject  the  con- 
cession of  a railway  or  other  public  work. 

This  was  a return  to  the  policy  of  the  ‘ open  door  ’ to  which 
England  attaches  so  much  importance.  She  refused  to  admit 
that  commercial  privileges  should  be  given  to  any  one  Power, 
or  any  preference  for  public  works  to  be  executed  ; in  a word, 
she  would  hear  of  no  ‘ spheres  of  interest’  Such  stipulations 
are,  indeed,  diametrically  opposed  to  the  wording  of  the  treaties, 
but  in  these  times  hardly,  except  by  force  or  the  threat  to  use 
it,  can  one  expect  even  the  most  solemn  engagements  to  be 
observed.  England  herself  was  obliged  to  concur  in  the 
German  ‘ sphere  of  interest ’in  Shan-tung.  In  the  months  of 
August  and  September,  1898,  it  was  once  more  feared  that 
there  might  be  trouble  between  England  and  Russia  over 

274 


CHINA 


the  matter  of  the  railway  from  Shan-hai-Kwan  to  Niu-chwang, 
a prolongation  beyond  the  Great  Wall  of  the  line  between 
Peking,  Tien-tsin,  and  Shan-hai-Kwan.  The  principal  bank  in 
the  Far  East,  the  Hong- Kong  and  Shanghai  Banking  Corpora- 
tion, was  to  build  it  for  the  Chinese  Government  and  exploit 
it,  reserving  as  security  a first  mortgage  on  the  line.  Russia 
intervened,  and  objected  that  any  railway  concession  should 
be  given  to  any  other  Power  than  herself  north  of  the  Great 
Wall.  After  considerable  discussion,  the  Powers  arrived  at 
an  agreement,  and  the  English  company  kept  the  concession, 
but  only  retained  a lien  on  the  already  constructed  Peking- 
Shan-hai  Kwan  line  to  the  south  of  the  Wall. 

In  the  midst  of  all  the  intrigues  and  unpleasantness  which 
we  have  just  narrated,  Europe  has,  nevertheless,  accomplished 
at  Peking  a noteworthy  and  unprecedented  work.  She  has 
not  only  obtained  very  advantageous  concessions  for  her 
commerce,  such,  for  instance,  as  the  opening  to  navigation  of 
all  the  watercourses  on  which  Treaty  Ports  are  situated,  but 
also  the  allotment  to  the  European  Customs  Administration 
of  the  collecting  of  likin  in  the  valley  of  the  /ang-tsze,  as  a 
security  for  the  third  great  loan  of  j^i6, 000,000.  She  has 
also  obtained  the  right  to  introduce  into  China  the  best 
machinery  for  the  exploitation  of  her  natural  resources.  The 
English  are  about  to  work  the  coal  and  iron  mines  of  Shan-si 
and  Ho-nan,  the  Germans  those  of  Shan  tung,  and  the  English 
and  French  together  the  mines  of  Yun  nan.  Six  thousand 
miles  of  railway  are  to  be  constructed,  not  only  at  the  extremities 
of  the  Empire  in  the  Steppes  of  Manchuria  and  on  the  plateaux 
bordering  Indo-China,  but  also  in  the  thickly-peopled  central 
and  eastern  provinces,  from  Peking  to  Han-kau  and  Canton, 
from  Tien-tsin  to  the  lower  Yang-tsze,  in  Shan-tung  and  around 
Shanghai,  connecting  towns  of  several  hundred  thousand,  and 
even  over  a million  inhabitants,  through  countries  at  least  twice 
as  densely  peopled  as  France. 


275 


T 2 


CHAPTER  XI 


THE  FUTURE  OF  CHINA — MAINTENANCE  OR  PARTITION  OF  THE 
CELESTIAL  EMPIRE? 

Necessity  of  proceeding  slowly  with  the  Reform  movement  in  China,  if  the 
overthrow  of  the  Empire  is  to  be  averted — Weakness  of  the  Govern- 
ment at  Peking— The  Emperor  and  the  Reformer,  Kang-Yu-Wei — The 
Empress-Dowager  and  Li  Hung-chang — Palace  revolution  in  Sep- 
tember, 1898 — Enormous  obstacles  in  the  way  of  the  Celestial  Empire 
reforming  itself — Reasons  why  it  cannot  follow  the  example  of  Japan 
in  1868 — The  possibility  of  partition — The  interests  of  Great  Britain, 
the  United  States,  and  Japan,  partizans  of  the  ‘open  door’  policy, 
and  of  Germany,  Russia,  and  France — The  dangers  incurred  by 
partition — Difficulties  of  effecting  it  pacihcally,  and  also  for  Europeans 
to  govern  the  hundreds  of  millions  of  Chinese — The  anarchy  that  might 
result — Services  which  might  be  rendered  to  progress  by  the  Chinese 
Government  in  preventing  too  rapid  a transition — Possibility  of  con- 
verting the  Chinese  to  material  progress. 

‘ Every  time  that  the  bones  of  China  are  rattled — and  they 
have  never  been  more  vigorously  than  at  present  ’ — said  a 
technical  English  paper,  ‘ an  increase  of  commerce  follows.’ 
Nothing  can  be  truer ; but,  at  the  same  time,  it  might  be  prudent 
not  to  shake  the  old  skeleton  too  violently,  too  often,  or  too 
long,  if  we  do  not  wish  to  see  it  tumble  to  pieces.  China  is  a 
sort  of  amorphous  State  whose  different  parts  are  joined 
together  by  the  very  weakest  ties,  concerning  which  we  know 
little  or  nothing,  and  whose  main  force  consists  in  tradition 
and  in  the  existence  of  a governing  class  of  literati,  recruited 
throughout  the  Empire,  even  among  the  very  people.  On  the 
other  hand,  germs  of  serious  disaffection  do  exist ; the  actual 
Dynasty  is  a foreign  one,  which,  at  the  beginning  of  the  century, 
the  terrible  Taiping  Rebellion  — only  suppressed  with  the 
assistance  of  Europeans — nearly  ruined,  and  the  descendants  of 
the  old  national  Ming  Dynasty  are  still  living.  The  accession 

2J6 


CHINA 


to  the  throne  of  the  present  Emperor  was  irregular,  it  seems, 
according  to  Chinese  procedure,  and  the  country  is  honey- 
combed by  secret  societies,  whose  object  is  the  overthrow  of 
the  existing  state  of  affairs.  The  mass  of  the  people  are  totally 
indifferent  to  politics,  and  very  rarely  exhibit  hostility  to 
foreigners,  if  the  latter  behave  with  circumspection,  unless, 
indeed,  they  are  urged  on  by  fanatics  or  malcontents,  when, 
unfortunately,  they  are  easily  roused.  In  the  principal  towns 
of  every  prefecture  and  sub-prefecture  there  exists  a hetero- 
geneous mass  of  soured  and  fanatical  literati,  who  pursue  the 
humblest  trades  in  order  to  keep  themselves  from  starvation, 
who  are  intimately  mixed  up  w ith  the  people,  by  whom  they 
are  treated  with  great  respect,  and  who  will  obey  their  com- 
mands to  overthrow  the  Europeans  and  their  innovations. 

The  Government  of  Peking  is  too  thoroughly  convinced  of 
its  external  weakness  to  openly  resist  any  demand  imposed 
upon  it  by  the  Powers,  but  if  it  be  too  hardly  pressed,  and 
forced  to  introduce  or  allow  the  premature  introduction  of 
all  sorts  of  innovations,  and  in  too  many  places  at  once,  it  may 
run  the  risk  of  exciting  against  it  the  literati,  who  regard,  and 
not  without  reason,  any  extension  of  European  influence  as  a 
menace  to  their  privileges.  Such  action  might  easily  lead  to 
active  opposition  to  all  reform,  especially  in  the  central  and 
southern  provinces,  more  backward  than  those  of  the  north, 
and,  if  leaders  of  the  movement  can  be  discovered,  lead  to  the 
complete  disorganization  of  the  Celestial  Empire.  Trouble 
has  already  occurred  in  Sze-chuan,  as  well  as  further  in  the 
lower  valley  of  the  Yang-tsze.  A rather  serious  insurrection 
broke  out  in  1898  in  the  Kwang-si  and  Kwang-tung,  but 
without  any  result.  We  know  that  local  troubles  in  so  badly 
governed  a country  as  China  of  a necessity  must  become 
chronic,  but  in  many  cases  the  news  concerning  them  reaches 
Europe  considerably  embellished  and  exaggerated. 

It  is  certain  that  the  elements  of  disorder  are  just  now  greatly 
excited.  Even  at  Peking  rival  factions  are  disputing  for  power; 
the  events  which  occurred  there  in  September,  1898,  are  little, 
and  possibly  never  will  be  completely,  known,  and  it  would  be 
impossible  to  relate  with  any  approach  to  truth  the  tragedies 
and  comedies  that  are  constantly  being  enacted  within  the 
walls  of  the  Forbidden  City. 

The  Emperor  Kuang-Su,  a young  man  of  twenty-five,  with  a 
sickly  body,  and,  it  is  said,  a weak  mind,  had  been  completely 

277 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


won  over  to  the  Reform  movement  by  a literate  of  the  new 
school,  named  Kang-Yu-Wei,  who  hailed  from  Canton.  His 
Celestial  Majesty,  with  all  the  zeal  of  a neophyte,  was  induced 
during  the  summer  to  issue  a distinctly  revolutionary  edict.  It 
was  said  that  he  went  so  far  as  to  presume  to  wear  a Euro- 
pean costume,  and  that  he  even  intended  going  personally 
to  Japan  to  observe  there  for  himself  the  transformation  which 
had  been  effected  in  the  last  thirty  years.  The  Reform  party 
undoubtedly  had  entertained  Japanese  as  well  as  English 
sympathies,  and  its  chief,  Kang-Yu-Wei,  passed  his  last  night 
at  Peking  in  the  Japanese  Legation.  Marquis  Ito,  it  is  said, 
discouraged  the  precipitation  with  which  it  was  intended  to 
carry  out  in  a few  weeks  reforms  that  had  taken  more  than  a 
quarter  of  a century  to  accomplish  in  Japan. 

Such  an  attempt  had  no  chance  of  success,  for  it  not  only 
opposed  many  prejudices  and  interests,  but  was  opposed  by  all 
the  Manchu  functionaries,  by  Li  Hung-chang,  who  had  been 
recently  disgraced,  and  by  the  Empress- Dowager.  His  Celestial 
Majesty  pretended  to  arrest  this  last-named  personage,  who  is 
his  aunt,  and  not  his  mother ; but  the  astute  Princess  defeated 
his  object.  The  great  majority  of  the  mandarins  being  hostile 
to  the  movement,  she  soon  possessed  herself  of  the  necessary 
tools  for  her  purpose.  The  Emperor  was  in  his  turn  imprisoned 
in  his  palace,  and  forced  to  apologize  and  sign  an  edict 
placing  the  reins  of  Government  entirely  in  the  hands  of 
the  Dowager.  The  immediate  consequence  of  this  act  was 
that  all  the  mandarins  of  the  old  school,  among  them  Li-Hung 
chang,  returned  forthwith  to  power;  Kang-Yu-Wei  took  flight 
on  board  an  English  vessel,  and  most  of  his  partizans  were 
either  beheaded  or  sent  into  exile,  and  very  soon  all  trace  of 
their  work  was  effaced. 

From  this  imprudent  attempt  at  reform  we  may  derive  a few 
useful  lessons.  In  the  first  place  it  showed  the  instability  of 
the  Peking  Government,  and  also  the  existence,  but  at  the  same 
time  the  impotence,  of  the  Reform  party  among  the  literati ; 
and  in  the  second  it  accentuated  that  dangerous  factor  in  the 
politics  of  the  Far  East,  the  inflexible  antagonism  existing 
between  England  and  Russia.  The  Empress  Tze-Hsi  is  un- 
doubtedly a very  clever  woman  ; she  first  governed  the  Empire 
in  the  capacity  of  Regent,  but  since  1887  she  has,  with  the 
assistance  of  Li  Hung-chang,  who  is  said  to  have  been  a 
former  lover,  done  so  in  the  name  of  her  nephew,  absolutely 

278 


CHINA 


refusing  to  abdicate.  Her  rule  has  been  undoubtedly  per- 
nicious to  China,  for  it  has  invariably  been  reactionary.  As 
an  instance  in  point,  an  important  Viceroy  has  been  recently 
reprimanded  for  attempting  to  reorganize  on  the  European 
system  the  troops  in  the  provinces  which  he  administered. 
The  Tsung-li-Yamen  has  likewise  in  a very  short  time  contrived 
to  strengthen  the  party  opposed  to  innovation,  and  all  sorts  of 
restrictions  have  been  placed  in  the  way  of  the  exp^  litation  of 
the  mines.  For  all  this,  be  it  bad  or  good,  the  Gov4.rnment  of 
Tze-Hsi  and  of  Li  Hungchang  is  nevertheless  a Government; 
but  both  the  Empress  and  her  Minister  are  aged,  and  one  may 
naturally  ask  what  will  occur  when  they  are  no  longer  of  this 
world. 

The  Reform  party,  which  seems  to  have  the  sympathy  of  a 
few  high  functionaries,  does  not  apparently  include  many  of 
the  mandarin  class  ; the  unsuccessful  literati,  who  struggle  for 
existence  in  the  towns  of  the  interior,  and  who  are  in  im- 
mediate contact  with  the  people,  apparently  remain  outside 
of  all  notion  of  progress,  being  absolutely  convinced  of  the 
immense  superiority  of  the  Chinese  over  the  barbarians.  It 
is  therefore  very  difficult  to  imagine  how  a handful  of  in- 
novators can  ever  be  able  to  impose  their  ideas  against  so  much 
prejudice.  A revolution,  such  as  occurred  in  Japan  in  1868, 
which  rushed  that  Empire  into  the  ways  of  reform,  stands  no 
chance  of  being  effected  in  China,  and  even  if  it  were,  it  would 
only  receive  just  such  another  rebuff  as  happened  in  1898,  or 
else  lead  to  anarchy  and  the  dismemberment  of  the  Empire. 

The  situation  in  China  to-day  is  essentially  different  from 
that  of  Japan  thirty  years  ago.  In  the  first  place  the  Chinese 
civilization  which  gave  way  in  Japan  to  European  was  not  of 
domestic  growth,  but  essentially  an  imported  article  of  extreme 
antiquity,  which  never  succeeded  in  stultifying  the  Japanese 
people  as  it  has  done  the  Chinese ; what  is  more,’  ancestors 
and  classics  were  never  held  by  the  Japanese  in  the  same 
veneration  as  is  bestowed  upon  them  by  the  Chinese.  Far 
above  the  traditions  of  Confucius  and  of  the  Wise  Men  of  old 
stood  the  Mikado  of  divine  descent  and  the  spirit  of  national 
independence.  The  first  object  of  the  Japanese  Revolution  in 
1 868  was  to  restore  the  Emperor  to  the  plenitude  of  his  power, 
a result  attained  by  the  union  of  the  principal  clans,  as  we  have 
already  explained.  Although  it  resulted  in  the  suppression  of 
feudalism  and  the  introduction  of  European  civilization,  it  was 

279 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


originally  not  presented  in  this  form,  and  if  the  entire  nation 
eventually  accepted  these  innovations,  it  was  because  they  had 
been  consecrated  by  the  divine  Emperor,  and,  moreover,  were 
approved  of  by  a powerful  army  which  had  always  been  friendly 
to  progress  and  prompt  to  resist  reaction. 

Those  advantages  that  so  greatly  favoured  the  Japanese 
reformers  are  non-existent  in  China.  There  is  no  military 
party  in  Peking  friendly  to  Reform  or  eager  to  assist  the  re- 
formers in  seizing  supreme  power  at  the  right  moment  and 
helping  them  to  retain  it.  The  initiative,  therefore,  cannot 
come  from  either  the  capital  or  the  provinces.  Instead  of  the 
Japanese  daimios,  or  hereditary  chieftains,  surrounded  by  in- 
numerable and  faithful  vassals,  we  have  in  China  viceroys  who 
are  invariably  strangers  in  the  provinces  they  administer,  and  are 
spied  upon  by  Tatar  marshals  having  at  their  disposal  by  way 
of  an  army  a horde  of  ill-disciplined  ragamuffins,  whom,  even  if 
an  attempt  were  made  to  transform  them  into  genuine  soldiers, 
a task  which  would  require  many  years  to  effect,  the  Court 
at  Peking,  being  against  the  scheme,  would  soon  disband. 
No  martial  spirit  or  feeling  of  patriotism  exists  in  China  to 
induce  the  governing  classes  to  give  up  their  privileges,  even 
though  it  were  for  the  benefit  of  the  country.  The  tenacious 
attachment  of  the  Chinese  to  their  very  ancient  but  stationary 
civilization  is  their  greatest  impediment  to  progress,  especially 
as  love  of  country  is  a mere  empty  sound  to  the  vast  majority 
of  Chinamen. 

Another  and  very  important  difference  between  China  to- 
day and  Japan  in  1868  is  that  thirty  years  ago  Europe  per- 
mitted the  Island  Empire  to  accomplish  its  own  revolution 
without  interference,  whereas  to  - day  the  Powers  would 
assuredly  prevent  any  attempt  at  a too  sudden  evolution  in 
the  Government  of  the  Celestial  Empire,  which  would  only 
plunge  the  country  into  a deplorable  condition  of  turmoil. 
Even  now  the  Dowager-Empress’s  party  is  known  as  the 
Russian,  and  that  of  Kang-Yu-Wei  as  the  Anglo-Japanese. 
Possibly  this  may  be  an  exaggerated  view  of  the  case,  and  that 
neither  party  is  in  the  service  of  any  particular  Power ; but 
the  incorruptibility  of  Li  Hung-chang  must  be  taken  with  a 
grain  of  salt.  It  is,  however,  certain  that  the  Legations  watch 
with  a jealous  eye  the  intrigues  of  the  various  factions,  and 
that  the  disgrace  of  Li  Hung-chang  is  looked  upon  as  a victory 
for  England,  and  each  return  to  power  of  the  Viceroy  of  Pe- 

280 


CHINA 


chi-li  as  a Russian  success.  No  worse  sign  could  possibly  exist 
for  a State  than  the  perpetual  interference  of  foreign  Powers  in 
its  affairs. 

‘Are  we  about  to  witness  the  dismemberment  of  China?’  is  a 
question  people  are  constantly  asking  themselves.  No  one  in 
particular  wishes  for  it,  since  the  division  of  such  an  inheritance 
would  be  disputed  by  at  least  five  or  six  claimants,  who  will 
only  settle  their  differences  at  the  sword’s  point.  For  the  past 
twenty  five  years  Europe  has  trembled  at  the  bare  thought  of 
war,  and  we  must  not  be  surprised  if  she  dreads  the  mere 
mention  of  the  disruption  of  China,  which  would  be  even  more 
dreadful,  since  it  means  universal  war,  in  which  the  United 
States,  Great  Britain,  and  Japan,  as  well  as  the  Continental 
Powers,  would  each  take  a share.  Even  if  the  matter  were 
settled  amicably,  what  country  would  care  to  govern  eighty  or 
a hundred  millions  of  Chinamen  ? Some  people  say  that  it 
could  easily  be  settled  by  not  attempting  to  govern  them  at  all, 
in  other  words,  to  let  things  go  their  way ; but  no  European 
Power  would,  or  could,  do  otherwise  than  rule  them  methodi- 
cally, according  to  our  modern  ideas  of  government.  To- 
day, if  a band  of  brigands  exists  in  any  obscure  corner  of 
China,  nobody  troubles  about  it,  but  once  that  corner  belongs 
to  a European  Power,  the  irresistible  desire  of  attempting  to 
establish  order  would  assuredly  lead  to  an  insurrection.  The 
introduction  of  European  methods  is  certain  to  upset  many  of 
the  old  customs  and  traditions  to  which  the  Chinese  hold  with 
almost  pathetic  tenacity.  It  requires  an  amazing  tact  to  govern 
the  Chinese,  a fact  made  daily  manifest  in  Hong- Kong,  and 
illustrated  by  the  recent  serious  outbreak  in  the  French  con- 
cession at  Shanghai,  where  a disturbance  took  place  over  the 
removal  of  a time-honoured  sanctuary  to  make  way  for  a public 
road.  'I'he  difficulties  encountered  by  Europeans  in  every 
country  imbued  with  Chinese  ideas — those  of  the  English  in 
Burmah,  the  French  in  Tongking,  and  the  Japanese  at 
Formosa — prove,  if  proof  were  needed,  how  great  is  the  resist- 
ing power  and  the  risks  any  European  nation  would  have  to 
encounter  which  attempted  to  govern  even  a fragment  of  the  vast 
Chinese  Empire. 

On  the  other  hand,  each  Power,  whilst  dreading  the  con- 
sequences of  a partition,  is  equally  unwilling  to  behold  a rival 
carry  off  the  lion’s  share.  It  is,  therefore,  with  an  eye  to  an 
eventual  partition  that  each  nation  endeavours  to  obtain  a 

281 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


privileged  position  in  certain  regions,  and  to  possess  itself  of 
spheres  of  interest  by  forcing  China  to  make  the  singular 
promise  never  to  cede  any  portion  of  territory  in  certain  defined 
provinces  to  any  nation  but  to  the  one  which  obtains  the 
promise.  But  this  sort  of  promise  is  fraught  with  difficulties, 
and  a source  of  eventual  hostilities  between  nations  having 
pretensions  upon  the  same  region,  just  as  it  is  between  the 
partizans  of  ‘ spheres  of  interest  ’ and  those  of  the  ‘ open  door.’ 
In  order  to  understand  the  policy  of  the  various  Powers  in 
China,  in  which  they  see  a very  important  field  for  exploita- 
tion, we  must  first  consider  their  commercial  interests  in  the 
Celestial  Empire.  The  British  Empire  incontestably  occupies 
first  place  in  the  foreign  commerce  of  China,  which  in  1897 
stood  at  366,000,000  hai-kwan  taels,  or  ^54,900,000  (i  tael  = 
3s.).  Of  this  236,934,000  taels,  or  ^35,540,100,  two-thirds  of 
the  whole,  belongs,  according  to  the  Imperial  Chinese  Customs 
Report,  to  Great  Britain.  Here,  however,  we  must  not  be 
misled,  for  if  w'e  subdivide  this  sum,  we  shall  see  that  about 
.;!^5>5oo,ooo  alone  belong  to  England,  .^5,000,000  to  her 
colonies  other  than  Hong-Kong,  through  which  the  remainder, 
that  is  to  say,  about  ;^23, 000,000  worth  of  goods,  passes,  Hong- 
Kong  being  merely  a point  of  transit.  Goods  imported  from 
Germany,  America  and  Russia  into  China,  passing  through 
this  island  port,  or  being  exported  thence  to  the  four  corners 
of  the  globe,  are  put  down  to  England.  Then,  again,  a very 
important  trade  is  carried  on  between  the  North  and  the  South 
of  China  through  Hong-Kong,  and  thus  it  comes  to  pass  that 
Great  Britain  gets  the  credit  for  commerce  which  does  not 
really  belong  to  her.  If  Hong-Kong  possessed  proper  Custom- 
house statistics,  it  would  be  easy  to  account  for  the  origin  and 
destination  of  the  merchandize  which  passes  through  this  port ; 
but  such  statistics  do  not  exist.  Under  these  circumstances, 
we  must  turn  either  to  those  of  the  various  countries  of  Europe 
and  America,  or  to  the  detailed  statistics  of  the  Chinese 
Customs,  which  frequently  rectify  the  total  amounts,  whereby 
we  learn  that  jQ6^2,'joo  worth  of  Russian  petroleum  is  imported, 
whereas  the  total  imports  from  Russia  by  sea  are  only  estimated 
at  ^485,100.  The  difference  must,  therefore,  be  accounted 
for  as  having  passed  through  Hong-Kong.  A comparison 
between  the  Chinese  Customs  statistics  and  those  of  Germany, 
the  United  States,  French  Indo-China,  and  other  countries, 
obliges  us,  however,  to  admit  that  three-fifths  at  least  of  the 

282 


CHINA 


trade  of  Hong- Kong  really  belongs  to  the  British  Empire,  which 
leaves  to  the  latter  about  ^2^,000,000,  that  is,  40  to  50  per 
cent  of  the  total  foreign  commerce  of  the  Celestial  Empire. 
In  the  matter  of  imports,  the  English  reign  supreme,  holding 
at  least  three-fourths  in  their  hands,  and  dominating  the  market 
by  the  two  principal  articles,  opium  and  cotton.  Moreover, 
their  flag  floats  over  65  per  cent,  of  the  total  tonnage  registered 
in  the  Chinese  ports ; of  636  foreign  houses  of  business 
established  in  the  open  ports,  374  are  English;  of  11,600 
foreigners,  5,000  are  British  subjects;  and  English  is  the 
language  most  spoken  throughout  the  ports  of  the  Far 
East.  When  we  take  all  these  facts  into  consideration,  we 
are  obliged  to  acknowledge  that,  having  so  many  interests 
to  defend  in  this  part  of  the  globe,  England  has  a right  to  let 
her  voice  be  heard  clearly  in  commercial  affairs.  We  must  not 
be  surprised,  therefore,  if  she  insists  upon  the  ‘open  door’  policy 
in  China.  The  question  now  arises.  Does  she  seek  territory  in 
the  Celestial  Empire  ? She  has  apparently  sacrificed  the 
‘ spheres  of  interest  ’ theory  by  exacting  from  China  an  engage- 
ment not  to  cede  anything  in  the  basin  of  the  Yang-tsze,  and 
the  English  Jingoes  are  already  dreaming  that  Great  Britain 
will  be  mistress  not  only  from  the  Cape  to  Cairo,  but  from 
Cairo  to  Shanghai.  ‘Are  not  the  Arabian  Coast  and  the 
Persian  Gulf,’  I recently  read  in  an  English  paper,  ‘already 
ours,  and  morally  subject  to  our  protectorate  ? Once  we 
possess  the  valley  of  the  Yang-tsze,  who  is  to  prevent  our 
constructing  a rival  line  to  the  Trans-Siberian  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Nile  to  that  of  the  Blue  River?’*  Although  just  at 
present  it  were  best  not  to  count  too  much  on  the  wisdom  and 
coolness  of  the  British,  nevertheless,  their  statesmen  seem  to 
appreciate  the  dangers  of  so  beautiful  a dream.  They,  at  least, 
understand  that  the  peril  of  the  British  Empire  lies  in  its  enormous 
extent.  The  majority  of  the  British  would,  no  doubt,  be  satis- 
fied if  they  were  allowed  to  place  their  capital  and  their  com- 
merce on  a footing  of  equality  with  that  of  other  countries 
in  the  Celestial  Empire,  if  the  territorial  encroachments  of 
the  Powers  did  not  justify  the  fear  of  the  creation  of  a protec- 
tionist tariff.  We  may,  therefore,  hope  that  Great  Britain, 
having  obtained  all  that  she  desires  in  the  way  of  strategic 

* It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  author  does  not  give  the  name  of  the 
newspaper  in  which  he  read  this  ludicrous  utterance  ; we  should  doubtless 
then  see  that  it  is  far  from  representative  of  British  opinion, — H.  N. 

283 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


points  for  the  benefit  of  her  naval  forces,  and  also  a great 
number  of  commercial  concessions,  will  remain  contented  with 
her  lot,  and  not  dream  of  attacking  the  independence  of  China, 
but  rather  be  inclined  to  help  her  to  regain  power.* 

After  England  the  United  States  do  the  greatest  business 
with  China.  They  only  figure  for  500,000  in  the  Chinese 
Customs  statistics,  but  their  own  official  publications  give 
840,000.  Petroleum  and  cotton  goods  are  the  principal 
articles  of  their  commerce,  which  is  sure  to  be  enormously 
increased  in  the  future  as  the  Middle  Kingdom  requires  more 
and  more  machinery,  which  is  manufactured  to-day  much  more 
cheaply  in  America  than  anywhere  else.  The  United  States 
are  represented  in  China  by  thirty-two  houses  of  business  and 
1,564  citizens  j their  mercantile  marine  is,  however,  very  in- 
significant, but  having  of  late  assumed  a position  among  the 
world’s  Powers,  and  being  already  installed  in  the  Philippines, 
they  are  sure  to  increase  their  mercantile  fleet  very  rapidly,  and 
as  they  aspire  to  become  one  day  mistress  of  the  Pacific, 
they  watch  with  a very  jealous  eye  all  that  happens  in  the  Far 
East.  However  protectionist  they  may  be  at  home,  they  are 
resolute  partizans  of  the  ‘ open  door  ’ in  this  market,  of  which 
they  justly  hope  to  eventually  acquire  a large  part  through  their 
enterprise.  Already  a coolness  has  occurred  in  their  friendship 
with  Russia,  and  in  January,  1900,  they  obtained  a guarantee 
that  none  of  the  Powers  should  establish  differential  tariffs  in 
leased  ‘ spheres  of  interest.’ 

Japan  takes  the  third  rank  with  a rapidly  increasing  com- 
merce, which  in  1897  reached  ;|C5, 850, 000.  Her  spun  cotton 
rivals  that  of  England  and  India.  Seven  hundred  Japanese  are 
registered  as  residing  in  the  different  ports.  The  Celestial 
Empire  has  no  warmer  friends  at  the  present  moment  than  the 
Japanese.  The  Japanese  papers  are  full  of  articles  which 
compare  the  position  of  the  two  countries  to  that  of  Prussia  and 
Austria  after  Sadowa,  and  preach  reconciliation,  and  a close 
alliance  was  already  spoken  of  with  enthusiasm  at  the  close  of 
the  War.  Many  Japanese  statesmen  are  studying  this  question, 
among  them  the  Marquis  Ito,  four  times  Prime  Minister,  and 
Prince  Konoye,  President  of  the  Chamber  of  Peers,  who 
travelled  in  China,  and  stayed  in  Peking  in  1898  and  1899. 

* M.  Leroy-Beaulieu  cannot  seriously  believe  that  the  independence  of 
China  is  threatened  by  Great  Britain.  British  policy  is,  as  it  always  has 
been,  to  maintain  her  independence  by  every  means. — H.  N. 

284 


CHINA 


According  to  certain  signs,  their  overtures  have  not  been  alto- 
gether fruitless.  The  Government  of  the  Empress-Dowager 
does  not  seem  to  entertain  any  particular  rancour  against  the 
Japanese  for  the  sympathies  which  they  expressed  for  the  Re- 
former Kang-Yu-Wei,  and  undoubtedly  seeks  some  support  in 
order  to  withdraw  itself  from  the  over-exclusive  domination  of 
Russia.  If  this  last  Power  is  feared  in  Peking,  it  would  seem 
that  Japan  is  at  the  present  time  the  most  considered,  whose 
counsels  are  best  heard,  and  who  best  serves  as  the  inter- 
mediary for  progress  into  China.  It  is  from  Japan  that  China 
obtains  instructors  for  her  army,  and  that  the  Viceroy  Chang- 
Chih-tung  not  only  borrowed  money,  but  also  engineers  for  his 
foundry  at  Han-yang.  The  cementing  of  a formal  alliance 
will  no  doubt  be  prevented  through  fear  of  Russia,  and  very 
probably  China  does  not  desire  it  very  sincerely.  Possibly  at 
Peking  they  continue  to  despise  the  Japanese  as  much  as  they  do 
Europeans,  although  they  may  have  a preference  for  the  former. 
One  thing  is  certain,  and  that  is,  that  the  relations  between  the 
Governments  at  Peking  and  Tokio  are  better  than  they  were 
before  the  War.  Of  the  Western  Powers,  England  is  most 
preferred  by  the  Mikado’s  subjects,  although  even  with  her 
they  are  a little  suspicious.  A feeling  of  intense  resentment  is  still 
expressed  by  the  vast  majority  of  the  Japanese  against  Russia. 
A small  minority,  however,  desire  that  an  understanding  should 
be  arrived  at  with  her.  This  party,  however,  also  wishes  for 
the  ‘ open  door,’  China  being  the  only  outlet  for  their  young 
and  already  important  cotton  industry. 

These  three  nations — England,  the  United  States,  and  Japan 
— complete  the  group  of  the  whole-hearted  partizans  of  the 
‘ open  door.’  The  British  press  has  often  expressed  a desire 
to  see  an  alliance  effected  between  them,  and  if  this  were  only 
created  between  England  and  Japan  it  would  be  very  for- 
midable in  the  Far  East.  The  Japanese  fleet  is  excellent,  and 
whatever  may  be  our  opinion  of  the  ability  of  the  Mikado’s 
sailors,  it  is  certain  that,  once  united  to  the  English  fleet  under 
the  command  of  an  English  admiral,  it  could  soon  sweep  the 
China  Seas,  and  it  would  then  be  easy  to  embark  an  army  of  a 
hundred,  even  of  two  hundred  thousand  men,  whom  it  would 
be  difficult,  even  according  to  Russian  officers,  for  the  Tsar’s 
army  in  the  Far  East  to  resist.  Perhaps  Russia  has  pushed 
the  Empire  of  the  Rising  Sun  too  much  and  too  soon  into  the 
arms  of  England. 


285 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


Germany,  who,  according  to  her  own  statistics,  carries  on 
a trade  with  China  valued  at  ;jC3, 400,000,  of  which  ;^2,32o,ooo 
are  imports  into  China,  and  who  counts  104  commercial 
houses  instead  of  the  78  in  1892,  and  registers  870  re- 
sidents in  the  Treaty  Ports,  divides  her  preferences  between  the 
policy  of  the  ‘spheres  of  influence’  and  the  ‘open  door.’  If 
she  has  reserved  a right  of  preference  in  the  public  works  to 
be  undertaken  in  Shan-tung,  she  soothes  the  irritation  of  the 
English  by  making  Kiao-chau  a free  port ; but,  notwithstand- 
ing the  antipathy  which  exists  at  heart  between  the  two  nations 
and  the  progress  of  German  commerce,  often  at  the  cost  of 
British  trade,  and  thanks  to  the  more  obliging  manners  and 
greater  activity  of  the  German  merchants,  a distinct  ameliora- 
tion has  taken  place  since  the  end  of  1898  in  the  relations 
between  the  two  Governments,  and  Germany  seems  for  the 
present  to  have  turned  her  back  upon  the  Franco-Russian  group 
in  the  Far  East  in  order  to  support  British  policy.  One 
province  alone  in  China  is  not  enough  for  her  commercial 
enterprise,  and  she  fears  to  see  protection  closing  the  other 
ports. 

We  now  come  to  Russia.  Her  total  commerce  with  the 
Celestial  Empire  does  not  amount  to  more  than  about 
;^3,ooo,ooo,  half  of  which  passes  overland  by  way  of  Siberia. 
Petroleum  as  an  import  and  tea  as  an  export  are  the  two  great 
articles  of  Russian  trade  with  the  Celestial  Empire.  There  are 
very  few  Russians  living  in  China,  and  those  who  do  so  are 
mainly  established  in  the  port  of  Hankow.  Russia’s  objects  in 
the  East  are  almost  entirely  political,  and  it  is  very  probable  that 
her  protective  tariff  will  follow  her  territorial  aggrandizement. 
Being  already  mistress  of  Manchuria,  she  officially  fixed  the 
southern  limits  of  her  sphere  of  influence,  at  the  time  of  the 
affair  of  the  Niu  chwang  Railway,  at  the  Great  Wall.  To  the 
north  is  a vast  stretch  of  land  almost  entirely  desert.  In  all 
probability  this  limit  is  merely  temporary,  and  possibly  none 
really  exists  in  Russian  aspirations ; but  before  declaring  her 
policy  she  awaits  the  completion  of  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway. 
The  Empire  of  the  Tsar,  notwithstanding  the  60,000  to  80,000 
men  already  massed  between  the  Amur,  Korea,  and  Pe-chi-li, 
does  not  yet  feel  sufficiently  safe  to  take  a step  forward  for  fear 
of  bringing  herself  into  conflict  with  England  and  Japan.  The 
day  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway  is  finished  a step  southwards 
may  no  doubt  be  made.  The  antagonism  between  Russia  and 

286 


CHINA 


Great  Britain,  both  of  whom  aspire  to  be  the  leading  Asiatic 
Power,  will  then  no  doubt  become  bitterer  than  ever. 

The  policy  of  France  has  been  more  often  than  not  ostenta- 
tious, timid  at  heart  and  often  vexatious  in  form.  She  has 
made  a great  fuss  over  a few  commercial  advantages  obtained 
in  the  sterile  provinces  which  border  on  Tongking,  and  she  has 
opposed  England  without  doing  her  any  injury  with  respect  to 
the  opening  of  the  West  River.  In  certain  affairs  relating  to 
European  concessions  at  Shanghai  and  Hankow,  France  has 
unfortunately  succeeded  not  only  in  vexing  England,  but  in 
alarming  the  Germans,  Americans,  and  Japanese  by  the  exces- 
sive regulations  which  she  has  introduced  in  those  territories 
which  have  fallen  into  her  hands.  It  does  not  seem,  however, 
that  the  French  have  contrived  to  obtain  sufficient  compensa- 
tion for  the  enmities  which  they  have  provoked  in  defending, 
not  without  peril,  interests  which  after  all  were  not  their  own. 

The  part  which  France  has  wished  to  play  in  China  has  not 
been  a strictly  commercial  one.  French  highly-finished  and 
expensive  fabrics  are  of  no  good  in  the  Chinese  market.  If 
she  only  had  the  common-sense  and  enterprise  to  send  to 
Tongking  first-class  weavers,  and  establish  there  a manufactory 
under  French  direction,  with  cheap  native  labour,  she  should 
soon  be  able,  if  she  copied  the  cotton  industries  of  India,  to 
compete  with  Japan  in  the  Chinese  market.  It  is  therefore 
the  exportation  of  capital  which  ought  to  be  her  object  in 
the  Far  East,  in  China  as  well  as  in  Indo-China.  Notwith- 
standing their  activity,  it  is  not  countries  like  Japan  and  Russia, 
which  are  without  capital,  that  can  attempt  to  exploit  the  riches 
of  China,  but  countries  that  are  already  advanced  in  civiliza- 
tion like  Germany,  the  United  States,  and  above  all,  France 
and  England,  who,  by  the  introduction  of  the  vast  resources 
of  their  capital,  are  in  a position  to  work  the  mines,  railways, 
and  other  resources  of  the  Middle  Kingdom.  If,  instead  of 
trying  to  obtain  exclusive  privileges  in  a poor  region,  which  are 
of  no  use  and  only  irritate  other  nations,  France  had  sup- 
ported them  in  their  ‘ open-door  ’ policy,  she  would  have  gained 
a good  deal,  without  losing  anything  from  the  purely  com- 
mercial point  of  view,  and  thus  Frenchmen  might  have  placed 
themselves  on  a common  footing  with  men  of  all  nations,  in 
the  same  manner  that  the  English  and  the  Germans  contrived 
to  come  to  an  agreement  in  business  transactions,  notwith- 
standing the  divergence  which  tends  to  separate  them  more 

287 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


and  more,  and  she  would  then  have  been  able  to  place  her 
capital  to  great  advantage,  and  thereby  have  added  immensely 
to  her  prosperity,  not  only  abroad  but  at  home,  as  was  the 
case  under  the  Second  Empire,  when  she  covered  Europe  with 
railways. 

France  might,  moreover,  from  the  purely  political  point  of 
view,  have  played  a conciliatory  part,  and  have  thus  managed 
to  prevent  the  dominant  influences  at  Pekin  from  becoming 
too  exclusive,  which  might  ultimately  result  in  a terrible  conflict, 
and  she  should  have  worked  to  maintain  the  independence 
of  China.  Now  that  the  Chinese  are  permitting  Europeans 
to  take  their  riches  in  hand  by  constructing  their  railways 
and  exploiting  their  mines,  it  seems  to  us  that  France  ought  to 
allow  her  to  retain  a sort  of  communal  existence,  in  which 
the  civilized  nations  might  carry  on  their  economic  activity 
precisely  as  they  do  in  Turkey,  with  the  difference  that  the 
Empire  of  the  Son  of  Heaven  is  much  vaster,  richer,  and 
populated  by  a far  more  industrious  people  than  that  of  Sultan 
Abd-ul-Hamid. 

This  is,  of  course,  a solution  of  an  apparently  temporary 
character,  but  which  might  have  a chance  here,  as  elsewhere, 
of  lasting  longer  than  a score  of  other  solutions  which  are 
deemed  definitive,  always  provided  that  the  Powers  do  not 
exert  too  much  pressure  on  the  feeble  Government  at  Peking, 
and  especially  if  Russia,  once  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway  is 
finished,  does  not  insist  upon  her  demands  in  so  violent  a manner 
as  to  provoke  simultaneous  action  on  the  part  of  the  Powers,  and 
thereby  bring  about  a partition.  The  destinies  of  the  Celestial 
Empire  are,  however,  in  a great  measure  in  the  hands  of  the 
Tsar,  who  has,  fortunately,  already  given  many  proofs  of 
sagacity. 

The  maintenance  of  the  Chinese  Government  seems  for  the 
moment  preferable,  even  in  the  interests  of  the  opening  up  of 
the  country  and  in  the  introduction  of  our  civilization  in  its 
immense  territory,  to  the  partition  of  China  between  the  various 
European  nations.  We  do  not  say  this  because  we  believe  that 
the  Chinese  Government  is  converted  to  progress,  for  we  hold 
that,  with  very  few  exceptions,  those  who  direct  the  fortunes  of 
the  Chinese  Empire  are  quite  as  fossilized  in  their  prejudices, 
as  firmly  believe  in  their  decrepit  wisdom,  as  eager  to  prove 
their  hatred  of  Western  civilization,  and,  moreover,  as  corrupt, 
as  ever  they  were.  At  the  same  time,  they  are  convinced 

288 


CHINA 


of  the  impossibility  Oi  China  resisting  the  encroachments  of 
European  civilization,  and  as  resigned  as  ever  to  yield  to  external 
pressure.  Undoubtedly  the  era  of  subterfuges  on  the  one 
side  and  of  menaces  on  the  other  is  by  no  means  closed, 
and  in  spite  of  reforms  which  have  been,  and  are  still  to  be, 
obtained  in  the  future  by  Europeans,  a considerable  part  of  the 
pecuniary  advantages  to  be  obtained  from  the  transformation 
of  China  will  remain  in  the  hands  and  up  the  sleeves  of  the 
mandarins.  But  if  progress  is  somewhat  retarded  by  this 
resistance,  which,  after  all,  will  only  be  temporary,  it  will  be 
better  so  than  that  it  should  be  introduced  too  suddenly  and 
cause  unnecessary  trouble.  Meanwhile,  the  Government  of 
Peking  plays  an  extremely  useful  part.  Some  people  have  not 
hesitated  to  say  that  if  it  ceased  to  exist  progress  would  be 
much  more  rapid,  forgetting  that  anarchy  would  ensue,  the 
end  of  which  would  be  as  difficult  to  foresee  as  it  would  be 
to  find  a means  of  terminating  it,  or  of  discovering  a manner  in 
which  any  European  Government  could  govern  200,000,000 
Chinamen.  The  losses  which  the  re-establishment  of  a stable 
regime  would  entail,  and  the  vast  expense  of  subduing  rebellion, 
would  certainly  exceed  those  resulting  from  the  procrastination 
under  the  actual  form  of  Government. 

At  the  end  of  a certain  period  it  is  highly  probable  that 
the  march  of  events  may  be  accelerated,  and  when  the  mass 
of  the  Chinese  people  have  been  placed  in  contact  with  the 
results  of  Western  progress,  it  is  very  probable  that  its 
great  common-sense  will  do  the  rest.  It  is  an  appeal  to  their 
essentially  commercial  and  money-making  instincts  that  we 
must  make  if  we  wish  to  convert  the  Chinese,  the  most  realistic 
and  the  least  idealistic  of  nations.  Railways  will  be  the  best 
missionaries  of  civilization  in  China. 


389 


u 


INDEX 


A 

Advances,  small,  made  to  immigrants  into 
Siberia,  47 

Agriculture  zone,  5,  7;  extent,  8;  popu- 
lation, 10 

Agriculture,  Siberian  peasants’  ignorance 
of,  24,  25  ; procucts  of  Japan,  125,  129  ; 
novel  methods  of  manuring,  130 
Ahmar  Dabam  Mountains,  13 
Ainos,  the,  85 

Aibazme,  heroic  defence  of,  3 
Alexander  III.  decrees  the  creation  of  the 
Trans-Siberian  Railway,  66 
Alexandrovsk,  prison  of,  54 
Altai  Mountains,  the,  10  ; valleysofthe,  47 
Amur  province  annexed  by  Russia,  13 ; 
population,  13 ; free  from  all  special 
Custom  duties,  33,  note:  number  of 
immigrants  annually,  47 ; Russian  im- 
migrants have  to  face  a large  Asiatic 
contingent,  49  \ Buddhists  in  the  pro- 
vince, 51 ; only  likely  to  attract  Russians, 

Amur  River,  Khabar  of,  establishes  himself 
on  the,  3;  immigrants  settle  in  the 
region,  47 ; damp  climate,  47 : Govern- 
ment assists  colonization  in  the  Amur 
basin,  48 

Armstrong,  Whitworth,  and  construct 
the  ferry-boats  for  Lake  Baikal,  69 
Army,  Japanese,  strengthened,  141 ; ex- 
cellence of  the  troops,  166,  167^ 

Art,  Japanese,  withstands  Chinese  in- 
fluences, 87;  under  the  Tokugawas,  100; 
art  industries,  119 ; hasty  production  and 
deterioration,  137 

Artillery  employed  at  the  nav'al  battle  of 
Shigutake,  93 
Ar\  ans,  the,  172 

Asiatic  Ocean,  tribes  in  the  region  of  the,  6 
Astr^han  annexed  by  Russia,  1 

B 

Baikal,  Lake,  beauty  of,  12 ; used  in  the 
transport  of  tea,  32  ; ferr>-boats  to 
convey  trains  across,  66 ; its  size,  69 
Barabinsk  Stepj>e,  the,  11 
Barley  in  Siberia,  7,  24 


Bamaoul,  38  ; attractive  to  immigrants,  47 
Beer,  excellent,  at  Irkutsk ; Japanese 
beer,  120 

Behring  Straits,  native  races  in  the  district 
of  the,  53 

Berizof  on  the  Obi,  climate,  5 
Berlin,  distance  to  Vladivostok  and  Port 
Arthur,  76 

Biisk  attractive  to  immigrants,  47 
Birch,  predominance  of  the,- 9 
Black  Current,  the,  5 
Blagovyeshchensk,  its  prosperity,  30 ; 
fruit  and  vegetables  brought  to,  oy 
Chinese,  51 

Blue  River,  mouth  of  the,  188 ; its  banks, 

235 

Brandt’s,  Herr  von,  estimate  of  Chinese 
revenue,  219 

Bridges,  Siberian,  carried  away  by  inun- 
dations, 59  ; bridges  of  the  Trans- 
Siberian  Railway,  68 

Britain,  Great,  tra  e with  Siberia,  62; 
important  commerce  with  Japan,  139  ; 
Japan’s  friendship  for  her,  168  ; new 
commercial  treaty  with  Japan,  179,  180; 
concessions  made  to,  by  China,  240  ; she 
turns  her  back  on  China  for  Japan,  244 ; 
the  treaty  with  France  concerning 
Yunnan,  262  ; she  re|;aias  her  position 
in  China,  263 ; public  wrath  at  the 
German  seizure  of  Kiao-chau,  269  ; the 
‘open  door*  policy,  270,  271,  274  ; oflfer 
of  a loan  to  China,  270  ; important  con- 
vention with  China  regarding  the  Yang- 
tsze-Kiang  basin,  etc.,  271 ; danger  ot 
war  with  Russia,  272 ; Wei-hai-wei  and 
Kowloon  ceded  to  Great  Britain,  273  ; 
the  English  public  <till  dissatisfied,  274  ; 
the  Niu-chwang  Railway  aflair,  275; 
Great  Britain’s  commerce  with  China, 
272,  273 ; better  relations  with  Germany. 
286 

British  bombard  Kagoshima,  106 
British  Columbia,  temperate  climate,  5 
Brushes,  Japanese,  120 
Bubonic  plague,  microbe  of  the,  discovered 
by  a Japanese,  177 

Buddhism  practised  by  the  Buriats,  13 ; 
in  Trans- Baikalia  and  the  Amur,  51  ; 
introduced  into  Japan,  86 ; purer  in 


290 


INDEX 


Japan  tban  in  Chlna^  87;  degenerated 
in  China,  202 

Buriats,  the,  12 ; in  Trans* Bailcalia,  51 ; 

in  the  Amur  district,  51 
Butter  scarce  in  Siberia,  19 ; exported  to 
Russia,  22 

C 

Camels  employed  in  the  tea  trade,  34  ^ 
Canada  compared  with  Siberia,  4 ; rivers 
and  agricultural  area,  4;  position  su- 
perior to  that  of  Siberia,  4,  5 ; difference 
between  Canada  and  Siberia,  55 
Canton,  the  foreign  man  of  China,  229 
Catholics  not  tolerated  in  Russia,  14,  15  ; 
their  churches  in  all  large  Siberian 
towns,  15 

Cattle,  very  numerous  in  Siberia,  22  ; ex- 
ported thence  to  Europe,  22 ; scarcity  in 
Jfapan,  128 

Cedar-trees,  Siberian,  11  ; their  seeds 
eaten  by  the  Siberians,  ii 
Cereals  in  Sifieria,  7;  a lengthy  summer 
necessary  for  their  cultivation^  8 ; in  the 
valleys  of  the  Upper  Yenissei  and  Obi, 
21  ; the  harvest,  23  ; unfavourable 
climate  in  Siberia,  25  ; exported,  31 
Chancellor  first  enters  Russia  via  the 
White  Sea,  61 

Chartered  Company,  a,  established  under 
the  Strogonofs,  2 

Cheliabinsk  in  the  Great  Plain,  9 ; scenery, 
9 ; refuges  for  immigrants  at,  46 
China  allows  Russia  to  build  the  Man- 
churian Railway,  67 ; her  interest  in  it, 
2 ; commercial  class  have  always  been 
onoured  in  China,  141 ; Japan  her  best 
friend,  167;  Chinacompared  withTurkey, 
183  ; density  of  the  population,  184  ; 
enormous  coal  and  copper  beds  un- 
touched, 184 ; China  more  backward 
than  India  or  Japan,  185  ; the  signifi- 
cance of  the  Japanese  War,  185  ; end  of 
China's  isolation,  186 ; possible  results 
of  her  dissolution,  187,  281  ; first  impres- 
sions, 188  ; cultivation  of  the  soil,  190 ; 
Peking,  190;  Hien-feng’s  hunting  ex- 
cursion, 195  ; ruin  of  the  once  fine  high- 
roads, 199,  201  ; hills  never  cultivated, 
202  ; squandering  of  money,  203  ; general 
decay,  203  *,  the  mandarinate  the  curse 
of  China,  204  ; the  literati,  204-206 ; cor- 
ruption, 206,  217  ; how  the  governing 
class  is  selected,  208  ; the  causes  of  her 
isolation,  209,  210 ; the  non-existence  of 
any  martial  spirit  among  the  people,  210 1 
irregularities  in  the  Government,  2ti  ; 
long  existence  of  the  State,  212  ; patriot- 
ism unknown,  213 ; population,  214, 
ncte;  taxes  light,  218, 219;  total  revenue, 
219 ; natural  disasters,  220 ; population 
does  not  increase,  220 ; rapacity  of 
officials,  220,  221 ; the  result  of  the 
opening  up  of  the  country,  227  ; the 
Treaty  of  Shimonosaki,  228,  236;  op- 
position to  foreigners,  229;  nothing  to 


be  expected  from  the  Government,  236 ; 
industries,  237,  238  ; increase  of  wages, 
23^)  239  > industries  still  limited  to  the 
Treaty  Ports,  240 ; China’s  commerce, 

241,  282-286  ; her  collapse  after  the  War, 

242,  243 ; England  turns  her  back  oa 
China,  244 ; North  China  coveted  by 
Russia,  246  ; the  intervention  of  Russia, 
France,  and  Germany,  247 ; Russia 
better  liked  than  any  other  Western 
Power,  248  ; China  becomes  alarmed  at 
Russia,  251 ; Russian  interference  in  the 
War  settlement,  252  ; a foreign  debt 
contracted,  253  ; it  leads  to  further 
foreign  interference,  254  ; Russia  be- 
comes guarantor  for  China,  255;  Russian 
influence  predominant,  258  ; concessions 
to  Germany,  259 ; to  France,  259-261 ; 
England  regains  her  position  in  China, 
263,  264  ; railway  concessions,  267,  268 ; 
Germany  seizes  Kiao-chau,  268  ; wrath 
in  England  at  this  act,  269  ; important 
concessions  to  England,  271  ; England 
declares  the‘open  door'policy,27X,274; 
China  leases  the  Liao-tung  Peninsula  to 
Russia,  271,  272  ; concessions  to  France, 
272 ; Wei  hai-wei  and  Kowloon  ceded  to 
England,  273  ; the  Niu-chwang  Railway 
affair,  275  ; progress  made  in  China, 
275  ‘f  germs  of  disaffection,  276,  277 ; the 
Palace  Revolution  of  September,  1898, 
277,  276  ; the  government  of  the  Em- 
press • Dowager,  278,  279 ; difference 
between  China  to-day  and  Japan  in 
1868,  279,  280 ; friendly  feeling  for 
Japan,  285 ; the  partisans  of  the  ‘open 
door,*  285 ; the  present  government  pre« 
ferable  to  a partition,  288  ; railways  the 
best  missionaries,  289 

Chinese  at  Vladivostok,  13,  50;  supply 
Blagovyeshchensk  with  fruit  and  vege- 
tables, 51 ; also  Kbabarofsk,  52 ; Chinese 
emigration  to  Eastern  Siberia,  52 ; their 
distinctness  as  a race,  84;  Chinese  civi- 
lization introduced  into  Japan,  86;  in- 
tegrity of  Chinese  merchants,  140 ; 
patience  of  Chinese,  184  ; their  insolence 
to  foreigners,  195;  their  energy,  196; 
their  habit  of  saving  appearances,  196, 
197,  203,  216;  the  peasantry,  199;  the 
Chinese  alphabet,  206,  207  ; the  feng- 
shut  geomancy,  209,  225  ; patriotism 
non-existent,  213  ; physical  and  linguistic 
differences  among  the  Chinese,  214,  215; 
their  civilization,  216  ; love  of  cunning, 
217 ; Chinese  etiquette,  217 ; life  very 
easy  for  the  people,  218  ; the  people  and 
the  Government,  218,  219 ; their  con- 
tented disposition,  220 ; resignation,  221 ; 
their  indifference  to  death  and  cruelty, 
221;  suicides  out  of  spite,  222;  why 
they  are  bad  soldiers,  222,  223 ; they 
might  be  better^  223,  note;  filial 
piety  and  infanticide,  223  ; ancestor 
worship  the  cause  of  non-progressive- 
ness,  223,  224  ; unhappy  lot  of  married 
women,  224  ; their  immorality,  224  ; 

U 2 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


gambling,  the  national  vice,  224  ; opium-  | 
smoking,  225  ; filthy  habits  and  supersti- 
tion, 225  j good  qualifies  of  the  Chinese, 
226;  their  nabit  of  looking  to  the  past 
for  a type  of  perfection,  226  ; their  lack 
of  discernment,  226  ; scandali7ed  by 
Christianity,  230;  Chinese  and  Western 
civilization,  230,  231  ; appreciation  of 
our  administration,  231,  232  ; their 
superstitions  about  missionaries,  232 
Chino-Japanese  War,  significance  of  the, 
185  ^ 

Christianity  introduced  into  Japan,  93  ; its 
great  progress,  94  ; extirpated,  95  ; not 
accepted  by  modern  Japan,  174  ; Chris- 
tianity in  China,  230 
Chuckchis,  the,  6 

Churches  very  numerous  in  Siberian  towns, 
^40 

Clans,  the  south-eastern,  a danger  to  the 
Shogunate,  99 ; they  join  the  Mikado 
against  the  Shogun,  104 ; survival  of  the 
clannish  spirit  in  modem  Japan,  156 
Coal,  abundant  in  Siberia,  29,  30;  coal  in 
Japan,  167 ; enormous  beds  in  China, 
184 

Commerce,  Japanese,  enormous  increase 
of,  135-140;  its  high  standard  not  main- 
tained, 140  ; the  Treaty  of  Shimonosaki 
and  Chinese  commerce,  236;  transport 
of  goods  in  China,  240  ; the  likin  system, 
240,  241  ; total  amount  of  Chinese  com- 
merce, 241 

Confucius’  works  studied  by  the  literati, 
206 ; his  views  on  filial  piety,  223 
Copper  mines,  Siberian,  29,30;  copper  ex- 
ported from  Japan,  140 
Cossacks  encounter  little  opposition,  2 ; 
they  traverse  Siberia  from  end  to  end,  3 ; 
they  disappear  as  hardy  pioneers,  3 ; 
the  Cossacks  of  the  Vitim  region,  12 
Cotton  industry  introduced  into  Japan, 
119;  its  wonderful  progress,  122  ; cotton 
factories  in  Shanghai,  237 ; total  amount 
of  cotton  imported  into  China,  241 
Custom-house  duties  in  Siberia,  33 ; in 
China,  240 

D 

Daimios  forbidden  to  enter  Kioto,  97  ; the 
five  grades,  97,  98  ; their  initiation  en- 
feebled, TOO ; horror  of  the  barbarians, 
104 ; they  recognise  the  uselessness  of 
opposing  the  foreigners,  106 
Dan-no-ura,  the  naval  battle  of,  89 
Dogs,  Siberian,  like  wolves,  18 
Dutch  the  only  Europeans  allowed  to 
traffic  with  Japan,  95,  96 

E 

Education,  its  backward  state  in  Siberia, 

20 ; making  considerable  progress,  40 ; 
education  in  Japan,  134,  176,  177  ; in 
China,  206-208 


Electric  light  in  Siberian  towns,  40;  in 
Tokio,  1 14 

Emigration  from  Russia,  44;  its  manage- 
ment, 45  {see  also  Immigration) 
Empress-Dowager  and  the  Palace  Revolu- 
tion, 278  ; a clever  woman,  278,  279  ; her 
party  known  as  the  Russian,  280 
England  {see  Britain,  Great) 

English  attempts  to  enter  Siberia  vii  the 
Arctic  Ocean,  61-62 ; an  English  com- 
any  creates  an  aimual  service  to 
iberia  by  this  route,  62 
Ermak  Timof6ef  seizes  Sibir,  2 
Eunuchs,  the,  16 

Examinations,  public,  in  China,  205  ; the 
subjects  chosen,  206,  208;  the  ‘new 
Western  culture,’  207,  208 
Exiles,  two  classes  of,  sent  to  Siberia,  53  ; 
allowed  to  settle  in  towns,  54 ; occupa- 
tions, 54;  families  allowed  to  accompany 
them,  55 ; their  number  in  1894,  55  » the 
artillery  captain  at  Kluchi,  57 


F 

Feng^shui  geomancy,  Chinese,  209,  225 
Ferrj’^-boats  to  convey  trains  across  Lake 
Baikal,  66,  69 
Fetish  tree,  a,  12 

Finance,  Japanese,  brilliant  condition  be- 
fore the  war,  143,  144  ; the  programme 
of  expansion,  145;  subvention  to  For- 
mosa, 146 ; large  loan  required,  146 ; 
scarcity  of  cash,  147  ; a foreign  loan, 
148  ; the  revenue  of  1897-1898,  149  ; in- 
crease of  taxation,  149 ; new  sources  of 
revenue,  150 ; taxes  not  really  heavy, 
150-152  ; other  possible  sources,  151 
Fir-trees,  Siberian,  6,  10 
Fishing  industry,  importance  of  Japanese, 
128 

Flowers,  Siberian,  n,  23  ; Japanese  love 
of  flowers,  133 

Foreigners,  Japanese  suspicion  of,  178, 
179;  the  commer  .ial  treaties,  178-1& ; 
the  land  tenure  difficulty,  180,  181; 
foreigners  in  China,  228  ; demand  a free 
hand  to  trade,  229  ; opinion  of  Chinese 
about  them,  230-233 ; before  the  war, 
23s,  236  ; IVeaty  of  Shimonosaki,  236 ; 
the  literati  and  foreigners,  277 
Forest  Zone,  the  Great,  5;  its  trees,  6; 
marshlands  and  severe  climate,  7 ; may 
become  of  great  value,  7 ; population,  7 
Formosa,  Japanese  subvention  to^  146 
France,  why  attracted  to  Torigking,  185 ; 
she  co-operates  with  Russia  and  Ger- 
many against  Japan,  247 ; her  sacrifice 
in  turning  from  Japan,  249  ; Russia  en- 
deavours to  draw  her  into  warlike 
demonstrations  against  Japan,  250; 

* advantages  ’ gained  by  her  intervention. 
259,  260,  262 ; her  treaty  with  Englana 
concerning  Tongking,  262;  France  the 
protectress  of  Catholicism  in  China,  263 ; 
she  suffers  a check  in  China,  264  ; more 


2Q2 


INDEX 


concessions  obtained,  273,  273 ; the  part 
she  ought  to  play,  288 
yrench  settlers  in  Siberia,  15  ; the  Govern- 
ment generally  indulgent  towards  them, 
5^  . 

Fujiwara  family,  the,  retains  the  Prime 
Ministership,  88 

Fukuzawa,  Mr.,  editor  of  the  Jiji  Shimpo^ 
103 

^‘umiture,  absence  of,  in  Japanese  houses, 

131 

Furs,  exported  from  Siberia,  31 

G 

Gambling,  the  national  Clynese  vice,  22^ 

^ ermany,  commerce  with  Japan,  139  ; sne 
co-operates  with  Russia  and  France 
against  Japan,  247 ; reason  for  so  doing, 
249,  250 ; small  advantages  obtained  in 
return,  259  ; she  seizes  Kiao-chau,  268  ; 
constitutes  Shan-tung  a sphere  of^  in- 
terest, 271 ; her  commerce  with  China, 
286;  netter  relations  with  England,  286 
Glass  in  Japan,  120 

Gold  mines,  Siberian,  in  the  Forest  Zone,  7; 
employ  relatively  few  people,  17  ; their 
exploitation  and  yield,  27,  29;  Govern- 
ment the  only  buyer  of  Siberian  gold, 
28 ; bad  system  of  taxation  and  other 
drawbacks,  28 ; primitive  implements 
used,  28 ; the  most  important  veins 
generally  difficult  to  get  at,  28  ; mining 
centre  removed  to  the  banks  of  the 
Amur  and  Lena,  29 ; exploitation  only 
granted  to  Russian  subjects,  53 
Great  Wall  of  China,  the,  20X-203 

H 

Hankow,  on  the  Yang-tsze,  the  great  tea 
mart  of  China,  34  ; projection  of  a rail- 
way from  Peking  to  Hankow,  268 
Hara-kiri,  the  ferocious  custom  of,  in 
Japan,  98 ; in  China,  222 
Hart,  Sir  Robert,  240 
Heitnino,  or  commoners  of  Japan,  99  ; 

keimino  in  the  public  offices,  156 
Henry,  Prince,  and  the  ‘mailed  fist,'  269 
Hideyoshi  reduces  the  daimios  to 
obedience,  91  ; orders  all  missionaries  to 
leave  Japan,  94 

Hien-feng’s  hunting  excursion,  195 
High-roads  of  China,  dilapidated  condition 
of  the,  199,  203 

Hitotoubashi,  tries  to  retrieve  the  Shogun- 
ate,  106  ; his  overthrow,  107 
Hong-Kong  seventeen  days  from  London 
via  Siberia,  77;  commerce  with  Japan, 
139;  Chinese  in  Hong-Kong,  231,232; 
lease  of  the  surrounding  heights  to 
England,  273  ; her  total  commerce,  282 
Horses  sometimes  difficult  to  procure  on 
the  Siberian  postal-road,  21 ; their  great 
number  in  Siberia,  22  ; horses  in  Japan, 
128 

Hu*nan,  coal-beds  in,  184 


1 

lemitsu  enfeebles  the  initiative  of  the 
daimios,  xoo 

leyas,  Tokugawa,  rises  to  power,  92 ; he 
reduces  the  Court  to  poverty^  97 ; 
creates  divergencies  among  the  daimios, 
99 ; and  revives  the  Chinese  classics, 
100 

Immigrants  into  Siberia  almost  exclusively 
peasants,  45  ; Tobolsk  a great  meeting- 
place  for  them,  45  ; the  routes  taken,  45 ; 
length  of  the  journey,  46;  refuges 
erected  for  their  accommodation,  46; 
those  coming  from  same  districts  grouped 
together,  46  ; regulations  for  their  settle- 
ment, 46,  47  ; small  advances  made  to 
them,  47  ; where  they  settle,  47  ; many 
return  again  to  Russia,  48 
Imperial  canal,  Chinese,  ruinous  condition 
of  the,  203 

Indemnity,  Chinese  War,  145;  paid  in 
gold,  146,  note;  the  Liao-tung  in- 
demnity, 251-252 

India  more  advanced  than  China,  185 
Industries,  Japanese,  118;  fancy  goods, 
1x9  ; glass,  brushes,  and  foundries,  120; 
jute  carpet  and  match  industries,  i2x  ; 
enormous  progress  of  cotton,  122 ; 
Japanese  own  all  their  own  industries, 
122,  X23 ; scarcity  of  workmen,  123; 
abuses  in  the  employment  of  women, 
123 ; hours  of  labour,  123 ; holidays, 
124;  increase  of  wages,  124;  diminution 
of  capital,  124  ; fisheries,  128  ; Chinese 
industries,  237 ; women  employds^  238 ; 
their  wages,  238,  239  ; industries  limited 
to  the  free  ports,  240 
Infanticide  in  China,  221 
Inland  Sea,  the,  of  Japan,  1x2;  its  light- 
houses, X12 

Inundntions  in  Siberia,  59 
fourdis,  or  Kirghiz  huts,  46 
Irbit,  the  great  fair  at,  35 
Irkutsk,  difference  between  the  Customs 
on  tea  at  Odessa  and  Irkutsk,  36;  total 
Customs  in  1896,  37 ; population,  38 ; 
the  theatre,  41 ; Irkutsk  once  capital 
of  Siberia,  42;  Its  excellent  beer,  54; 
Government  of,  population  in  1897, 
12,  13  ; number  of  immigrants  annually, 

Iron  mines,  Siberian,  27,  30 
Isbas,  the,  or  Siberian  peasants'  cottages, 
x8  ; interior  ornamentation,  23 
Islamism  professed  by  the  Kirghiz,  xo 
Ito,  Marquis,  160, 162  ; the  Ito  programme, 
144,  X45 

Ivan  the  Terrible,  x ; grants  the  Strogo- 
nofs  trading  privileges,  2 

J 

Japan,  the  Black  Current,  5 ; her  trans- 
formation, 81,  82 ; European  scepticism 
as  to  military  success,  82  ; early  history, 
83 ; its  betilement,  84 ; introduction  of 


293 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


Chinese  civilization,  86 ; also  of  Budd* 
hism,  the  silk-worm,  etc.,  86  ; resem- 
blance of  the  adoption  of  Chinese 
civilization  in  the  seventh  with  that  of 
European  in  the  nineteenth  century,  87: 
the  system  of  heredity,  87,  88 ; r^ 
authority  very  rarely  vested  in  the  man 
supposed  to  exercise  it,  88;  feudalism 
established,  88 ; dissensions  in  the 
Government,  88  ; the  Government  over- 
thrown by  Yoritomo,  89 ; increasing 
power  of  the  daimios,  89 ; the  Shogunate, 
89,  90  ; non-interference  of  the  Mikado 
in  the  Government,  90 ; civil  wars,  90 ; 
pitiable  condition  of  Japan  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  sixteenth  century,  90,  91 ; 
suppression  of  the  independence  of  the 
nobles,  91  ; leyas  rises  to  power,  92  ; 
arrival  of  the  Portuguese  in  Japan,  92; 
St.  Francis  Xavier  introduces  Chris- 
tianity, 93 ; great  progress  made  by  it, 
93>  94  i material  progress,  94;  Hide- 
yoshi  orders  all  missionaries  to  leave 
Japan,  94,  95  ; Christianity  extirpated 
in  Japan  and  exclusion  of  foreign  in- 
fluence, 95;  Dutch  and  Chinese  only 
allowed  to  trade  with  Japan,  95,  96  ; 
the  three  ancient  classes  of  the  people, 
97-99 : the  daimios  divided  by  leyas 
among  themselves,  99  ; Japan  under  the 
Tokugawas,  100 ; again  under  Chinese 
influences,  100 ; the  causes  of  the  Revo- 
lution of  1868  deep-rooted,  loi  ; decline 
of  the  Shogunate,  101 ; penetration  of 
Western  ideas  into  Japan,  102 ; the 
United  States  demands  the  opening  of 
the  ports,  103  ; ports  opened,  104 ; over- 
throw of  the  Shogunate,  104*107  ; nec^- 
sity  of  adopting  Western  civilization  in 
all  branches  perceived,  107 ; sweeping 
reforms,  108 ; removal  of  the  Court  to 
Tokio,  108 ; the  Satsuma  insurrection, 
108;  modem  Japan,  religio^ 

toleration,  iii ; Japan  the  Gr^t  Britain 
of  the  Far  East,  118  ; her  industries, 
118*124;  essentially  an  agricultural 
country,  125  ; agricultural  products,  125, 
126,  129,  130 ; scenery,  126 ; density  of 
the  rural  population,  126  ; small  area  of 
cultivatable  land,  127,  128 ; sc^city  of 
domestic  animals,  128  ; education,  134  ; 
increase  of  the  population,  134 ; foreign 
commerce,  135-140;  trade  despised  in 
ancient  Japan,  140;  brilliant  condition 
of  her  finances  before  the  war,  143,  144 ; 
extensive  programme  of  expansion,  144, 
145 ; large  loan  required  to  meet  same, 
146  ; a foreign  loan,  148  ; taxation,  150- 
152  ; instability  of  Parliaments,  154 ; the 
clan  spirit  in  modem  Japan,  156 ; the 
Parliamentary  system,  156*163 ; import- 
ance of  Japan’s  military  forces,  165  ; her 
coal,  167  ; Japan  China's  best  friend, 
167 ; her  friendship  for  England  and 
distrust  of  Russia,  168  ; colonizing  ambi- 
tions, 170 ; her  thorough  transformation, 
174 ; refu^  to  accept  Christianity,  174  ; 


the  civil  status,  175 ; railway  and  post 
176 ; carelessness  and  unpunctu^ity, 
177 ; inexperience,  178 ; hostility  to 
foreigners,  178 ; renewal  of  the  com- 
mercial treaties,  178-180 ; land  tenure, 
180;  her  foreign  missions,  182 ; Japan 
more  advanced  than  China,  185 ; the 
Treaty  of  Shimonosaki,  228 ; England 
suddenly  favours  Japan,  244 ; Japan 
leaves  Liao-tung  in  consequence  of  the 
demand  by  Russia,  France,  and  Ger- 
many, 247  ; her  fears  of  Russia,  247, 251 ; 
Russia’s  warlike  intentions  against  J apan, 
250 ; China  desires  an  alliance,  251 ; 
compensation  for  leaving  Liao-tung,  251, 
252;  Japan’s  high-handed  policy  in 
Korea,  256,  257  ; agreement  with  Russia 
regarding  Korea,  258 ; Japan  prepares 
for  a conflict  with  Russia,  267  ; her  com- 
merce with  China,  284 ; good  relations 
with  China,  285 

Japanese  in  Vladivostok,  50;  origin  of  the 
Japanese,  84  ; quite  distinct  from  the 
Chinese,  85,  171 ; the  early  Japanese, 
85;  the  Shinto  religion,  85;  their  power 
of  assimilation,  9^;  costumes,  iii,  115, 
«2  ; proud  of  their  victory  over  the 
Chinese,  112;  their  houses,  114,  115; 
the  children,  115,  zx6;  European  cos- 
tume, ii6 ; their  industries  in  their  own 
bands,  122,  123  ; their  food,  130;  dwell- 
ings of  the  peasantry,  131 ; disuse  of 
furniture,  131  ; freedom  of  the  women, 
132;  artistic  instinct  of  the  Japanese, 
132  ; cost  of  living,  133  ; charges  brought 
against  merchants,  140 ; Japanese  do  not 
yet  understand  the  value  of  time,  141 ; 
the  three  classes  of  society  not  exclusive, 
155  ; indifference  to  politics,  163  ; their 
hardiness,  166 ; lack  of  inventiveness, 
177 ; attention  to  detail,  177 ; un- 
punctuality,  177  ; indifference  to  death, 
221 

ews  in  Siberia,  15 

immo-Tenno,  first  Emperor  of  Japan,  83, 
84 

Jinrikisha,  the,  in  Japan,  116;  the  fares, 
117  ; in  China,  189 

unks,  Japanese,  rapidly  disappearing,  112 
ute  carpet-making  at  Osaka,  i2z 


K 

Kahorski  ichaiy  the,  9 
Kagoshima  bombarded  by  the  British,  106 
Kainsk,  the  Jerusalem  of  Siberia,  15 
Kaiping,  coal-mines  at,  189 
Kalmucks,  the,  10 
Kami,  or  superior  beings,  85 
Kamtchatka  reached  by  the  Cossacks 
Alexief  and  Dezhnief,  3 
Kang-Yu-Wei,  the  Reformer,  278 ; his 
party  known  as  the  ^gl<^ Japanese,  280 
Kansk,  the  refuges  for  immigrants  at,  46 
Kara  Sea,  navigation  only  possible  during 
six  weeks,  6a 


294 


INDEX 


Kazan,  the  Tatar  kingdom«  annexed  by 
Russia,  I 

Khabarof,  the  Ataman,  establishes  himself 
on  the  Amur,  3 

Khabarofsk,  the  military  element  at,  39  ; 
its  few  women,  51^  52 

Kiakhta,  tea  passing  through,  32 ; the 
three  parts  of  the  town,  32 
Kiao-cbau  seized  by  the  Germans,  268  ; 
made  a free  port,  286 

Kioto,  feudal  princes  never  allowed  to 
enter,  97 ; Court  removed  from  Kioto  to 
Toklo,  108  ; population,  zz8  ; industries, 

12Z 

Kirghiz  Steppes  crossed  by  the  Russians 
in  1847,  3 

Kirghiz  tribe,  the,  10;  number  and  re- 
ligion, zo ; they  export  their  cattle  to 
Europe,  22 

Kiu-Siu  settled  by  Mongolian  pirates,  84 
Kobylkas,  the,  25 

Korea,  Japan  has  a free  hand  in,  216; 
Russian  activity,  256 ; high  • banded 
conduct  of  the  Japanese,  256  ; murder  of 
the  Queen,  257 ; Russia’s  offer  of  ser- 
vice, 257  ; the  agreement  between  Russia 
and  Japan,  258  ; Russia  renounces  active 
intervention  in  Korea,  272 
Koreans  settled  in  and  about  Vladivostok, 
Z3,  50-53  ; Koreans  introduce  the  art  of 
writing  into  Japan^  86 
Kowloon,  the  peninsula  of,  ceded  to 
England,  273 

Krasnoyarsk,  the  theatre  at,  41  ; the 
English-Siberian  Company  establishes 
an  agency  at,  62 

Kuang-Su,  Emperor  of  China,  277;  his 
reforming  tendencies,  278 
Kuznetsk  attractive  to  Siberian  immi- 
grants, 47 

L 

Lamuts,  the,  6 

Land-owners,  rich,  greatly  needed  in 
Siberia,  26 

Land  tenure  in  Japan,  z8o 
Larches,  great  height  of  the,  6 
Leather,  Russian,  imported  into  Siberia, 
26 

Lena,  River,  discovered  in  Z637,  3 
Letters,  time  occupied  to  reach  the  Far 
East  shortened  by  one-half  by  the  Trans- 
Siberian  Railway,  79 
Liao-ho,  River,  73 

Liao-tung,  peninsula  of,  the  Japanese 
ordered  to  quit,  247  ; Japan  receives 
compensation  for  same,  251,  252  ; Russia 
obtains  the  peninsula,  271,  272 
Li-Hsi,  King  of  Korea,  his  vacillating 
conduct,  257 

Li-Hung  Chang  commences  the  Peking 
Railway,  189;  his  immense  fortune, 
2Z7  ; Li  and  the  war  settlement,  251 ; 
his  tour  to  Europe  a sort  of  punishment, 
267 ; he  returns  to  power,  278 
Likirtf  or  Chinese  inland  Customs,  total 

2 


amount,  2Z9 ; a pernicious  system,  240, 
241 

Literati,  the,  204 ; the  three  honorary 
degrees,  205 ; the  public  examinations, 
205  ; syndicate  for  helping  them  on,  206  : 
the  subjects  they  are  examined  in,  206 ; 
no  progress  to  be  expected  from  them, 
2ZZ  ; their  hatred  of  foreigners,  232,  233, 

, 277 

Littoral  province  annexed  by  Russia,  Z3; 
population,  13,  5Z ; immigrants  arriving 
by  sea,  44 ; preponderance  of  the  male 
over  the  female  sex,  51  ; Russians  only 
slightly  in  the  majority,  52 
London,  distance  to  Vladivostok  and  Port 
Arthur,  76 

M 

Manchu  Dynasty,  the,  dethrones  the 
Mings,  199 

Manchuria,  Chinese  activity  in,  52 ; 
Russians  exploring  Manchuria,  66,  67 ; 
Chinese  Manchuria,  73 
Manchurian  Railway,  China  allows  Russia 
to  build  the,  67;  cannot  be  completed 
in  contracted  time,  67 ; absolutely  in 
Russia’s  hands,  7Z  ; its  length,  72,  73 ; 
difficulties  to  be  overcome  in  construc- 
tion, 73 ; great  political  importance,  74 ; 
Port  Arthur  the  terminus,  74 ; its  cost, 
75 

Manchus,  the,  oppose  the  Russians  in 
Siberia,  3 ; they  prosper  in  the  Amur 
and  Littoral  provinces,  13  ; number,  5Z 
Mandarinate,  the,  never  acclimatized  in 
apan,  87  ; the  curse  of  China,  204 ; not 
ereditary,  205 ; therefore  the  more  per- 
nicious 209 ; cowardice  of  the  military 
mandarins,  223 ; hatred  of  foreigners,  232, 
233  ; looks  upon  China  as  a prey,  2^8 
Marshlands  on  the  banks  of  the  Obi  and 
the  Irtysh,  7 

Match  industry,  Japanese,  121 
Merchants,  Siberian,  17  ; charges  brought 
against  Japanese  merchants,  Z40;  mer- 
chants in  ancient  Japan,  Z4t ; honesty 
of  Chinese  merchants,  240 
Mikado,  almost  a god,  85;  Imperial  self- 
effacement,  88,  90 ; the  Court  reduced 
to  absolute  poverty,  97  ; the  Imperial 
family  universally  respected,  Z03  ; ae:ree- 
mentwith  the  south-western  clans  against 
the  Shogun,  104 ; the  Mikado  refuses 
to  acknowledge  the  Shogun,  Z05;  he 
ratifies  the  treaties  of  Z865,  zo6 
Milk,  excellent,  in  Siberia,  22 
Millet  in  China,  Z99 
MingSj  Tombs  of  the,  199,  200 
Minusinsk,  the  centre  of  settlement  in 
Siberia,  48 

Jtfzr  system  introduced  in  Siberia,  24 
Missionaries,  female,  230 ; Chinese  super- 
stitions regarding  missionaries,  232 
Moji,  rapidly  rivalling  Nagasaki,  112 
Mongolia,  Russian,  za 
Mongolian  pirates  settle  in  Kiu-Siu,  84 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


Mongols,  the  Kalmuck,  lo 
Mosque,  the  northernmost  in  the  world  at 
Tomsk,  lo 

Mosquitoes,  troublesome,  in  Siberia,  9 
^louravief-Amurski,  Count,  favours  the 
Trans-Siberian  Railway,  64 
Mujiks,  10  {see  also  Siberians) 

N 

Nagasaki,  Christians  in,  94;  Nagasaki 
the  only  port  left  open  to  European  com- 
merce, 96  ; penetration  of  Western  ideas 
into  Japan  through  Nagasaki,  102  ; its 
scenery,  no;  the  chief  coaling  port  on 
the  Pacific,  in 
Nan-kow,  201 

Natives  of  the  Tundra  Zone,  16 ; declining 
tribes,  13,  52 

Navy,  Japanese,  strengthened,  141  ; its 
importance,  165 

Nertchinsk,  treaty  of,  3 ; com  ripens  there, 
8 ; the  silver  mines  now  of  little  value, 
29  ; now  merely  a huge  village,  39 
Newspapers,  Japanese,  163 
Nicholas  II.  stops  transportation  into 
Siberia,  53 

Nikko,  magnificent  temples  at,  202 
Niu-chwang,  railway  being  laid  to ; the 
Niu-chwang  Railway  afifair,  275 
Nobunaga  Ota  sei2es  the  government,  91 


O 

Oats,  7,  24 

Obi,  climate  in  its  upper  valley,  21 ; gold- 
mines exhausted  in  its  basin,  29 ; the 
Upper  Obi  attracts  most  Siberian  immi- 
grants, 47 ; stores  landed  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Obi,  62  ; canal  between  the  Obi 
and  the  Yenissei,  65 

Odessa,  enormous  Customs  on  tea  at,  36 
Okhotsk,  the,  discovered,  3 ; native  tribes 
in  the  region  of  the.  «>2 
Olekma,  a tributap’  of  the  Lena,  7 
Omsk,  situation  oi,  38  ; the  Trans-Siberian 
Railway,  45 

Opium-smoking  in  China,  225,  241 
Opium  War,  the,  228 

Orthodox  Church,  Kirghiz  converted  to 
the,  10 ; it  abstains  from  propaganda  in 
China,  248 

Osaka,  the  Manchester  of  Japan,  118 ; its 
industries,  119-121  ; construction  of  a 
new  harbour,  120 
Ostiaka,  the,  6 ; their  origin,  10 
Ostrogs^  or  Siberian  block -houses,  3 

P 

Paris,  distance  to  Vladivostok  and  Port 
Arthur,  76  ; also  to  Tokio,  77 
Parliaments,  Japanese,  instability  of,  154  ; 
composition  of  the  two  Chambers,  157, 
158,  note;  opposition  to  the  clan  Cabi- 
nets, 157-159;  a dissolution,  159;  the 


1 various  parties,  160,  161 , signs  of  im- 
provement, 162,  163 

Pe-chi-li,  Gulf  of,  Russia  dominates  the, 
74  ; its  flatness,  188 

Peking,  the  railway  at,  77 ; the  city  and 
walls,  191,  192 ; street  scenes,  192,  193 ; 
shops,  193 ; the  main  thoroughfares  and 
side  streets,  194 ; houses,  194 ; scene 
from  the  walls,  195 ; insolence  of  the 
people  to  foreigners,  195  ; monuments, 
195,  196;  its  decay,  196;  the  environ^, 
199  ; entry  of  the  Allies  into  Peking,  228; 
projection  of  a railway  to  Hankow,  268 
Phre  Marquette,  size  of  the,  69 
Peter  «he  Great’s  wish  to  extend  Russia 
westw'ards,  3 

Petersburg,  St.,  distance  to  Vladivostok 
and  Port  Arthur,  76 
Petroleum,  use  of,  by  the  Japanese,  114 
Pigs  non-existent  in  Japan,  120 
Pine-trees,  Siberian,  6,  ii 
Pinto,  Feman  Mendez,  the  Portuguese 
navigator,  arrives  in  Japan,  92 
‘ Pity  of  the  Slav,’  the,  21 
Podorojne,  the  official  passport  for  Siberia, 
58  ^ 

Population,  Siberian,  in  1851,  3,  4 ; in 
1897,  4,  13  ; superiority  of  the  Russians 
in  Western  Siberia,  10  ; in  the  Amur  and 
Littoral,  13,  14  ; Asiatics  in  the  Amur, 
49;  annual  increase  of  the  population, 
55 ; rural  population  of  Japan,  126, 127  ; 
its  annual  increase,  134 ; population  of 
China,  213,  214,  note 

Port  Arthur  better  placed  than  Vladivostok, 
49  ; to  be  the  principal  terminus  of  the 
Trans-Siberian  Railway,  67  ; its  distance 
from  the  European  capitals,  76;  Russia 
obtains  the  lease  of  Port  Arthur,  271 ; it 
is  weakened  by  Wei-hai-wei,  273 
Ports,  Chinese,  188 

Portuguese,  first  appearance  in  Japan,  92 ; 

great  influx  of  the,  93 
Postal-road  of  Siberia,  the,  ii  ; its  anima- 
tion, 21 ; horses  sometimes  difficult  to 
obtain,  21  ; eight  large  towns  situated 
on  it,  38 ; cost  of  travelling,  57,  58  ; fairly 
well  kept,  58 ; its  monotony  past  Lake 
Baikal,  58 

Postal  service,  Japanese,  cheapness  of  the, 
176 

Post-stations,  Siberian,  each  proWded  with 
forty  horses,  21  ; the  post-master  at 
Kluchi,  57  ; their  appearance,  60 ; un- 
cleanliness, 61 
Potatoes  in  Japan,  130 
Powers’  change  of  tone  towards  China 
after  the  war,  185  ; their  surprise  at 
China’s  downfall,  243 

Protestants  not  tolerated  in  Russia,  74,  15  ; 
their  churcnes  in  all  large  Siberian  towns, 

15 

R 

Railway  loan,  Japanese,  145;  extension  of 
lines,  150 ; cheapness  of  fares,  176  ; 


296 


INDEX 


railway  concessions  granted  by  China, 
267,  268 

Raskolniks,  the,  16 

Reindeer,  the,  in  Northern  Siberia,  6 

Religion,  Japan  refuses  to  accept  our,  174; 

the  Chinese  and  our  religion,  2^0 
Restaurants  on  the  Trans*Sibenan  Rail* 
way,  78,  79 

Rice,  cultivation  of,  in  Japan,  126  ; annual 
prt^uction,  129  ; its  preponderance^  130; 
commerce  in,  138 

Rivers  of  Siberia  covered  for  months  by 
ice,  4 ; villages  on  the  banks  of  the  most 
important,  11 ; Chinese  rivers,  188 
Russia,  expansion  eastwards,  i ; abandons 
the  lower  Amur,  3 ; her  colonization,  4 ; 
the  Empire  as  a gold-producing  centre, 
27  ; overland  commerce  with  China,  32 ; 
population,  43 ; emigration,  44 ; her 
subjects  only  allowed  to  workthe  Siberian 
gold-mines,  53  ; concessions  to  the  Eng- 
lish Sibenan  Company,  62 ; allowed  by 
China  to  build  the  Manchurian  Railway, 
67  ; which  is  absolutely  in  the  hands  of 
Russia,  71 ; Japan’s  distrust  of,  168  ; 
her  new  policy  in  China,  186 ; Russia 
displeased  by  the  war,  245 ; desires  an 
outlet  to  the  sea,  245  ; she  covets  North 
China,  246 ; Russia,  France,  and  Ger- 
many order  Japan  to  quit  Liao-tung, 
247  ; Japan’s  fear  of  Russia,  247  ; better 
liked  than  any  other  European  Power  by 
China,  248;  her  warlike  intentions 
against  Japan,  250 ; China  becomes 
alarmed  of  Russia,  251 ; her  influence 
in  the  war  settlement,  251,  252 ; Russia 
stands  guarantee  for  China,  255 ; her 
activity  in  Korea,  256  ; offer  of  service 
to  Korea,  257  ; agreement  with  Japan  in 
Korea,  258 ; Russia’s  preponderating 
influence,  258,259  ; she  obtains  the  lease 
of  Port  Arthur,  271,  272  ; danger  of  war 
with  England,  272 ; the  Niu-chwang 
Railway  affair,  275 ; Russia’s  interests 
in  China  political,  286 
Russians,  their  religious  toleration,  14 ; 
manner  of  taking  tea,  31,  32  ; prejudice 
against  tea  conveyed  by  sea,  34  ; Rus- 
sians naturally  sociable,  59 ; their  no- 
madic habits,  70 

Russo-Chinese  Bank  established,  255,  256 


S 

Saigon,  77 

Saigon,  ^larshal,  quells  the  Satsuma  insur- 
rection, 108 

Sak/y  the  Japanese  drink,  130,  131 
Sakhalin,  Island  of,  population,  13  \ in- 
veterate criminals  sent  to,  54 
Samoyeds,  the,  6 ; their  number,  10 
Samouraiy  the,  become  hereditary,  90; 
their  position  in  ancient  Japan,  98 ; op- 
posed to  the  Shogunate,  loz ; corre- 
spondence between  certain  samourai 
and  Europeans,  102  ; wearing  of  the  two 


swords  prohibited,  108  ; public  offices  in 
their  hands,  156 

Satsumata-Chosbiu  combination,  the,  156, 
157  : its  rule,  i6z,  162 
Sayan  Mountains,  the,  12 
Scenery  of  Centr^  Siberia,  9 
Selenga  River,  12 

Serfdom  never  existed  in  Siberia,  20 
Shanghai  two  days  from  Port  Arthur,  77 ; 
the  town,  235 ; industrial  activity  at, 
237  ; railway  to  Woosung,  268 
Shan-tung,  coal-beds  in,  184  ; Germany 
constitutes  Shan-tung  a sphere  of  in- 
terest, 271 

Sheep  unknown  in  Japan,  128 
Shimonosaki,  Strait  of,  112;  treaty  of, 
228 ; Article  6,  236,  246 
Shintoism,  85 ; its  rites,  86 
Shogunate,  the,  89,  90 ; the  kammong 
daimios  allied  to  the  Shogunate,  99  ; the 
southern  clans  dangerous  to  it,  100  ; its 
decline,  loi ; frightened  at  America’s 
demand  for  the  opening  of  the  ports, 
Z04 ; its  enemies,  Z04  ; powerlessness, 
Z05  ; its  abasement,  Z05 ; last  bid  for 
power,  106 ; and  total  overthrow,  Z07 
Siberia,  its  conquest  by  Russia,  2 ; treated 
as  a penal  settlement,  3 ; opened  to 
colonization,  3 ; population,  3,  4,  Z3,  55  ; 
Siberia  compared  with  Canada,  4,  5,  55; 
its  rivers,  4 ; climate,  5,  25  ; the  ihr^^e 
zones,  5*7  ; its  scenery,  9,  zz,  Z2 ; condi- 
tions ot  existence  better  in  Siberia  than 
in  Russia,  9 ; the  Russian  population  in 
the  West,  zo;  religious  toleration,  Z4-Z6; 
Siberia  a prolongation  of  Russia,  15,  Z7, 
49  ; absence  of  great  landlords,  Z7,  26 ; 
land  rented  to  farmers,  z8 ; primitive 
methods  of  cultivation,  2Z,  25 ; domestic 
animals,  22 ; the  more  populous  regions, 
23:  land  tenure,  24;  lack  of  means  of 
communication,  25  ; mineral  wealth,  27- 
29  ; limited  industries,  30;  the  tea  traffic, 
jz  ; other  commerce,  37  ; towns,  38,  39; 
immigration,  43-48 ; transportation  of 
convicts,  53-55;  what  is  needed,  55; 
loneliness  of  the  country,  58 ; inunda- 
tions, 59 ; a cross-country  journey,  6z ; 
Siberia  entered  by  the  Arctic  Ocean,  6z- 
63 ; trade  between  England  and  Siberia, 
62 ; the  Ural  Railway,  65 ; trans-conti- 
nent river  and  rail  system  fails,  65,  66 ; 
the  Trans-Siberian  Railway,  66-75 ; the 
transformation  it  will  effect,  79,  80 
Siberians,  conditions  of  peasant  life,  9,  to; 
better  off  in  Siberia  than  in  Russia,  z8; 
their  ignorance  of  hygiene,  z8 ; apathy 
of  the  peasants,  Z9  ; their  favourite  texts 
from  Scripture,  20;  the  ‘pity  of  the 
Slav/  21 ; the  traffic  on  the  postal-road, 
at ; ignorance  of  the  peasants  of  agri- 
(mltural  science,  24,  25  ; rich,  4Z  ; do  not 
like  the  new  railway,  42  ; nor  immigra- 
tion, 46 ; their  resignation,  59 
Sibir,  Tobolsk  erected  on  its  site,  2 
Silk  imported  into  Siberia,  37  ; Chinese 
silk  exported,  24Z 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  THE  EAST 


Silver  mines,  Siberian,  28 
Stanovoi  Mountains,  the,  47 
Stretensk  on  the  Amur,  25 
Strogonots  obtain  trading  concessions,  a 
Suiki,  Empress,  87 
Sungari  River,  73,  74 
Summer  Palace,  the,  202,  203 
Sze'chuan,  ccal-beds  of,  184 

T 

Tarantass,  the,  57 

Tatar,  kingdoms  annexed,  1 ; Tatar  driven 
southwards,  2 ; the  Kirghiz,  10-22  ; Tatar 
women  in  China,  193 
Taxes,  Japanese,  150,  151;  Chinese,  218, 
219 

Tea,  traffic  in  Siberia,  31 ; routes  taken, 
32,  35  ; tea  passing  through  Kiakhta, 
33 ; duty,  33,  36,  37,  note ; Hankow 
the  great  tea-mart  in  China,  34;  Nijni- 
Novgorod,  35  ; difficulties  of  transport, 
36 ; its  value,  36  ; total  amount  exported 
from  China,  24X 
Telega,  the,  45 

Telephone,  the,  in  Siberia,  40;  in  Tokio, 
114 

Temples,  Chinese,  202 
Theatres,  Siberian,  41 
Tien-tsin,  the  railway  at,  77,  189  ; the 
town,  189  ; inundations,  190  ; the  Treaty 
of  Tien-tsin,  228  ; industry  at,  237 
Tiumen,  ii 

Tobacco  introduced  by  the  Portuguese 
into  Japan,  94  ; its  cultivation,  130 
Tobolsk,  its  erection,  2 ; the  ancient  capital 
of  Siberia,  38 ; a meeting-place  for  im- 
migrants, 45 

Tobolsk,  the  Government  of,  10 ; popula- 
tion, 13  : education  in,  20,  23 ; excellent 
soil,  24  ; number  of  immigrants,  47 
Tokio,  distance  to  Vladivostok,  77  ; re- 
moval of  the  Court  to,  108 ; railway  to 
Yokohama  opened,  108 ; population,  113  ; 
its  up-to-datedness,  114;  fires,  114,  115; 
means  of  getting  about,  116;  badly 
lighted,  117 
Tokugawa,  the,  100 

Tomsk,  the  mosque  at,  10 ; the  neighbour- 
ing country,  ii ; population,  38 ; its  new 
university,  40  ; theatre,  41 
Tomsk,  Government  of,  population,  13,  23 ; 
excellent  soil,  24 ; number  of  immigrants 
annually,  47 

Tongking,  its  copper-mines  attract  the 
French  to,  185  ; Customs  lowered,  260 ; 
poor  country  in  the  neighbourhood,  262 
Towns,  absence  of  large,  in  Siberia,  38 ; 
those  along  the  highroad,  39 ; their  ap- 
pearance, etc.,  39-41 

Trans- Baikalia,  climate,  5;  scenery,  12; 

population,  13  ; Buddhists,  51 
Trans-Siberian  Railway,  10 ; destined  to 
revolutionize  Siberia,  42,  56 ; why  ori- 
ginally designed,  64,  65  ; the  Ural  Rml- 
way,  65;  Alexander  III.  decrees  its 
execution,  66;  how  it  will  cross  Lake 


Baikal,  66,  69  ; length,  66, 73  ; the  Man- 
churian section,  67 ; its  construction  easy, 
67,  68  ; bridges,  68  ; workmen,  ; its 
cost,  70;  distance  via  the  Trans-Siberian 
Railway  to  the  Ear  East,  76  ; the  train* 
de-luxe^  77  ; journey  to  the  Far  East 
much  shortened  by  it,  77  ; fares,  78 ; 
restaurants,  78,  79  ; too  expensive  for 
heavy  merchandise,  79 ; facilities  for  for- 
warding letters  to  the  East,  79 ; Russia 
awaiting  its  completion,  259 
Treaties,  Japanese  commercial,  178-180; 
treaties  respecting  foreigners  in  China, 
228 

Treaty  Ports,  list  of  Chinese,  234,  note; 
Shanghai,  235,  237  - 239 ; industries 
limited  to  them,  240 
Trees  of  Siberia,  6 
Troitskosavsk,  32,  33 
Troops,  Russian,  in  the  East,  13,  166 
Tundra  Zone,  the,  of  Siberia,  5 ; area  and 
population,  6 

Turlu  population  of  Siberia,  14 

U 

United  States  demand  the  opening  of 
Japanese  ports,  103 ; their  commerce 
with  China,  284 
University  at  Tomsk,  the,  40 
Ural  Railway  opened  in  1880,  60 

V 

Vegetables  not  cultivated  in  Siberia,  19 
Verkhoyansk,  its  severe  climate,  6 
Villages  of  Siberia,  ix  ; resemblance  to 
those  of  Russia,  18  ; Japanese  villages, 

Vitim,  military  government  of,  12 
Vladivostok,  the  sea  covered  with  ice  in 
winter,  5 ; the  military  element  at,  38 ; 
Vladivostok  not  so  good  as  Port  Arthur, 
49  ; the  town  and  harbour,  49 ; popula- 
tion, 50 ; the  journey  to,  56  ; main  ter- 
minus of  the  Trans-Siberian  Railw’ay 
removed  to  Port  Arthur,  67  ; Vladivostok 
a point  of  vantage,  74  ; distance  from 
Vladivostok  to  the  European  capitals, 
76  ; to  Tokio,  77  ; Chinese  in,  232 
Voltaire's  idea  of  a Siberian  highroad,  64 

W 

Wages  in  China,  increase  of,  238, 239 
Wei-hai-wei  ceded  to  England,  273 
Western  civilization  not  a monopoly  of  one 
race,  172 

Wheat  in  Siberia,  7,  24  ; in  China,  199 
Wiggins,  Captain,  enters  the  mouth  of  the 
Yenissei,  62 

Witte,  M.  de,  chief  promoter  of  the  Man- 
churian Railway,  71 ; bis  successful 
Chinese  financial  policy,  255 
Women,  Japanese,  (reborn  of,  132  ; 
Chinese,  193  ; they  never  work  in  the 
field,  199  ; binding  of  their  feet,  221 ; 

298 


INDEX 


their  unhappy  lot  when  married,  224 ; 
immorality,  224 

Women  and  children  employed  in  Japanese 
match  factories,  121  ; their  unhealthy 
lodgings,  123;  conditions  of  labour,  123, 
124 ; women  and  children  in  Shanghai, 
237,  238  ; their  wages,  237 

Wood,  very  dear  in  China,  34;  used  for 
architectural  purposes,  202 

X 

Xavier,  Sl  Francis,  visits  Japan,  91; 
introduces  Christianity  there,  93 

Y 

Yahlonovoi  Mountains,  the,  67 

Yang-tsze-Kiang,  dense  population  of  the 
valley  of  the,  184 ; no  part  of  its  basin 
ever  to  be  ceded,  271 

Yakutsk,  climate,  6 ; population,  13 ; the 
eunuchs,  x6 


‘Yellow  Peril,*  the,  186,  239;  if  Japan  and 
China  united,  246 

Yellow  River,  coal-beds  on  the  hanks  of 
the,  184  ; its  mouth,  188 
Yenissei,  Government  of  the  population, 
12,  13  ; immigrants,  47,  48 
Yenissei  River,  its  mouth  reached  in  1636, 
3 ; gold-mines  near  it,  7 ; its  beauty,  ii  *, 
Captain  Wiggins  enters  it  in  1874,  61, 
62  ; canal  between  the  Yenissei  and  the 
Obi,  65 

Yokohama,  railway  opened  to,  xo8 ; the 
third  port  in  the  Far  East,  113 
Yoritomo  overthrows  the  Taira,  89 ; his 
ingratitude,  89 ; first  Shogun,  89 
Yoshitsune  wins  the  Battle  of  Dan-no-ura, 
89 ; bis  adventures  and  death,  89 
Yunnan,  copper-mines  of,  X84 ; a poor  pro* 
vince,  261 

Z 

Zalmka  system  in  Siberia,  the,  24 


THE  END 


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